The  fruit  of  the  tree. 


THE  •PRINCIPLES 
OF  FRUIT-GROWING 


WITH  APPLICATIONS 
TO  PRACTICE 


BY 

L.   H.   BAILEY 
n 


TWENTIETH  EDITION,  COMPLETELY  REVISED 


gorfe 
THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

LONDON:  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LTD. 

1915 
All  rights  reserved 


5 


. 


COPYRIGHT,  1897,  1915 
By  L.  H.  BAILEY 


Set  up  and  electrotyped  June,  1897 

Reprinted  July,  1898;  July,  1900;  July,  1901;  June,  1902; 
February,  1904;  January,  1905;  January,  November,  1906; 
Oqtober,  1907;  June,  1908;  January,  July,  1909;  January,  1910; 
January,  November,  1911;  April,  1912;  March,  1913; 

February,  1914 
Completely  revised  edition.    Published  February,  1915 


jTEount  Pleasant  fpreSS 

J.  Horace  McFarland  Co. 
Harrisburg,  Pa. 


PREFACE 

This  book  was  first  published  in  1897,  seventeen  years 
ago.  The  second  edition  was  called  for  in  1898,  and  the 
preface  for  it  was  written  in  the  Tyrol,  where  I  was  then 
looking  into  the  interesting  fruit-growing  of  certain 
regions.  Aside  from  minor  changes  in  the  text,  this  edition 
included  an  addition  to  the  appendix  of  "remarks  on 
classifying  and  describing  fruits."  The  third  edition  ap- 
peared in  1900,  with  no  change  except  in  details;  and  the 
fourth  in  1901.  The  present  issue  of  the  book,  which  is  the 
twentieth,  is  a  new  work,  it  having  been  rearranged  and 
reset,  and  largely  rewritten. 

In  the  years  since  the  book  first  appeared,  much  new 
knowledge  has  come  to  the  aid  of  the  fruit-grower.  The 
advanced  opinions  of  that  day  on  the  merits  of  tillage 
over  hay  and  sod  have  now  been  affirmed  by  experience 
and  experiments,  although  the  sod-mulch  method  has 
proved  itself  under  certain  circumstances.  The  many 
investigations  of  insects  and  fungi,  and  the  means  of 
attacking  them,  have  resulted  in  a  new  literature  and 
more  certain  means  of  control.  We  are  beginning  a  new 
line  of  approach  to  the  difficult  problem  of  protection 
from  frost.  We  have  more  rational  recommendations 
to  make  on  the  fertilizing  of  fruit-lands.  We  are  begin- 
ning in  many  ways  to  adapt  practices  of  caring  for  the 

(vii) 

3  00  i  73 


viii  Preface 

plants  to  the  better  understood  physiology  of  the  plants 
themselves.  The  older  and  traditional  opinions  and 
notions  are  gradually  giving  way  to  the  results  of  careful 
investigation. 

In  this  edition  I  have  had  the  great  advantage  of  the 
advice  of  many  persons.  I  have  freely  incorporated  the 
work  of  others,  as  appears  in  the  text.  Particularly  am  I 
indebted  to  Prof.  C.  S.  Wilson  and  Prof.  W.  H.  Chandler, 
of  the  Department  of  Pomology  in  the  New  York  State 
College  of  Agriculture  at  Cornell  University.  The  one 
has  read  all  the  proof  in  galleys  and  the  other  has  read  it 
all  in  pages.  They  have  helped  me  over  many  doubtful 
places,  and  have  thereby  made  the  book  more  worth  the 

while. 

L.  H.  BAILEY. 

ITHACA,  N.  Y.,  December  25,  1914. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

Pages 

THE  FIELD  OF  INQUIRY 1-37 

INVENTORY  OF  FRUITS 2-8 

THE  COURSE  OF  DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  FRUIT  REGION   .    .  8-10 

THE  DETERMINANTS  IN  FRUIT-GROWING 10-  20 

The  temperature  determinant 11-12 

The  moisture  determinant 12—  13 

The  soil  determinant 13-  15 

The  subsoil 15-16 

The  parasite  determinant 16-20 

THE  OUTLOOK  FOR  FRUIT-GROWING 20-  24 

THE  ORGANIZING  OF  THE  BUSINESS 24-  31 

Cost-accounting 27-  31 

THE  Two  KINDS  OF  COMMERCIAL  FRUIT-GROWING   .    .    .  31-34 

GARDEN  AND  AMATEUR  FRUIT-GROWING 34-  36 

THE  GENERAL  PRACTICE  AND  THE  SPECIAL  PRACTICE  .    .  36-  37 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  LOCATION  AND  ITS  CLIMATE       38-63 

THE  PLACE 39-51 

Location  with  reference  to  market 40 

Location  with  reference  to  weather 41-  51 

Rain  at  blossoming  time 41-42 

Wind 42-44 

Low  temperature 44-  48 

Atmospheric  drainage 49-  51 

THE  SITE  FOR  THE  FRUIT-PLANTATION 52-  55 

The  aspect , 53-55 

(ix) 


x  Contents 

THE  LOCATION  AND  ITS  CLIMATE,  Continued  Pages 

WINDBREAKS  FOB  FRUIT-PLANTATIONS 55-  63 

Benefits 56 

Injuries 56 

Forests  and  fruit-growing 57-  58 

General  statement 58-  60 

How  to  make  the  windbreak 60-63 

CHAPTER  III 

THE  TILLAGE  OP  FRUIT-LANDS 64-108 

The  case  of  the  early  apple  plantings      67-  69 

Sod  orchards 69-72 

Allowable  use  of  sod 72-  75 

THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  TILLAGE 75-  84 

The  structure  of  the  soil 77-81 

The  moisture  of  the  soil 81-  84 

USE  OF  THE  VARIOUS  TOOLS  IN  RELATION  TO  MOISTURE- 
SAVING  84-  91 

Plowing  to  save  moisture 84-  85 

Harrowing  to  save  moisture      85-  88 

Cultivators  and  moisture-saving 88-  89 

The  roller,  in  its  relation  to  soil-moisture 89-  91 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  TILLING  OF  FRUIT-LANDS    ....    91-102 

Preparation  of  the  land 91-  94 

Subsequent  tillage 94-  97 

Specific  advice  on  tillage 97-102 

CROPPING  THE  PLANTATION 102-106 

Orchard  crops 104-106 

IRRIGATION  OF  FRUIT-LANDS 106-108 

Irrigation  in  the  East 106-108 

CHAPTER  IV 

THE  ENRICHING  OP  FRUIT-LANDS       109-152 

The  land  is  to  be  kept  at  work 109-112 

The  lesson  of  nursery  lands 112-113 

COVER-CROPS 113-126 

The  kinds  of  cover-crops 116-123 

List  and  rates  of  seeding  of  cover-crop  plants   .    .    .    .123 

Average  quantity  of  seed  to  the  acre 124-125 

Weights  of  the  seeds  of  cover-plants 125-126 


Contents  xi 

THE  ENRICHING  OF  FRUIT-LANDS,  Continued  Pages 

ROTATION  OF  PLANTATIONS 126-129 

STABLE  MANURES .  129-131 

CHEMICAL  FERTILIZERS 131-152 

Apple-orchard  experiments 134-140 

What  to  do 140-151 

Individual  plants 142-143 

Recommendations  for  apples 143-144 

Other  suggestions  for  apples  and  pears 144-145 

A  test  plat  for  apples 145-146 

Peaches     146-147 

Plums,  apricots,  cherries 147 

Quinces 147 

Grapes    147-149 

Berry  bushes 149-150 

The  cranberry 150 

Strawberries 150-151 

How  to  apply 152 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  PLANTS  AND  THE  PLANTING 153-190 

THE  CHOICE  OF  VARIETIES 153-164 

Self-sterile  varieties 156-160 

Pears 157-158 

Apples 158 

Plums 158 

Grapes 158 

Scoring  the  varieties 161-162 

How  did  the  varieties  of  fruits  originate 162-164 

THE  SECURING  OF  THE  PLANTS 164-173 

Dwarfs  vs.  standards 167-168 

Pedigree  plants     .  .    ......   . 168-169 

Stocks .•••.*...... 169-171 

Stock  for  top-working.  . 171-172 

Buying  the  trees 172-173 

THE  SETTING  OF  THE  PLANTS' 174-190 

When  to  plant 174-176 

Distance  apart 176-178 

Double-planting;  fillers 178-181 

How  to  plant 181-184 

Trimming  the  trees 184-190 


xii  Contents 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  LAYING  OUT  OF  THE  PLANTATION 191-226 

CONTOUR  PLANTING 192 

ORCHARD  SYSTEMS 192-194 

MAKING  THE  Rows  STRAIGHT 194-206 

To  lay  out  with  a  plow 198-201 

Laying  out  with  a  line 201 

Another  line  method 201-202 

Staking  methods 202-206 

DETAILS  OF  ORCHARD  LAY-OUTS 206-217 

Lining-in  method 212-213 

Wire-compass  method 213-214 

THE  FAMILY  FRUIT-PLANTATION 217-221 

MAPS  AND  RECORDS 221-226 

Labels    .  .  222-226 


CHAPTER  VII 

SUBSEQUENT  CARE  OP  THE  FRUIT-PLANTATION 227-287 

PRUNING 230-241 

The  bearing  wood 232-234 

The  kind  of  top 234-236 

What  to  remove 236 

Renewing  old  trees  by  pruning;  "dehorning"     ....  236-237 

Heading-in 238-241 

THE  THINNING  OF  THE  FRUIT 241-250 

Thinning  the  apple 243-248 

Thinning  other  fruits 248-249 

How  to  thin 249-250 

PROTECTING  PLANTATIONS  FROM  FROST 251-273 

How  to  predict  frost 252-255 

Mulching  to  enable  plants  to  escape  frost 255-257 

Covering  the  plants  to  protect  from  frost 257-259 

Whitewashing  as  a  protection 259 

Making  currents  of  air 260 

Adding  vapor  of  water  to  the  air;  flooding 260-261 

Explosives  for  frost  and  hail 261-263 

The  making  of  smudges 263-265 

Heating  the  plantation 265-273 


Contents  xiii 

SUBSEQUENT  CARE  OF  THE  FRUIT-PLANTATION,  Continued         Pages 

SPECIAL  CARE  OF  THE  PLANTS 273-283 

Staking  young  trees 273-274 

Watering .274 

Bark-bound  trees 274-276 

Scraping  trees 276-277 

Whitewashing  trees 277 

Ringing 277-279 

Top-grafting  bearing  trees 279-281 

Grafting-wax 281-282 

Bagging  fruits      282 

Winter  preparations 282-283 

RENOVATING  OLD  ORCHARDS 283-287 

Why  are  orchards  barren? 286-287 


CHAPTER  VIII 

ACCIDENTS  AND  INJURIES      288-318 

MISCELLANEOUS  INJURIES 289-299 

Depredations  of  live-stock 289 

Birds 289-290 

Rodents 290 

Girdled  trees 290-292 

Hail  injuries 292 

Sun-scald .  292-294 

Borers 294-296 

Cankers  and  bad  spots;  wounds 296-298 

Root-galls 298-299 

WINTER-KILLING 299-307 

Winter-killing  of  the  wood 299-304 

Frost  cankers 304-305 

Winter-killing  of  the  fruit-buds 306-307 

INJURY  BY  FROSTS  IN  THE  GROWING  SEASON 307-317 

What  is  an  injurious  degree  of  cold? 313-317 

THE  EFFECT  OF  RAIN  ON  THE  SETTING  OF  FRUIT    .        .  317-318 


xiv  Contents 

CHAPTER  IX 

Pages 

THE  SPRAYING  OF  FRUIT-PLANTATIONS      319-363 

THE  KINDS  or  DIFFICULTIES      322-324 

SPECIFIC  REMARKS  ON  SPRAYING 324-333 

LISTS  AND  FORMULAS 333-336 

Synopsis  of  the  principal  considerations  in  the  choice  of 

a  power  sprayer  and  nozzles 334-336 

INSECTICIDES  AND  FUNGICIDES 336-343 

LEADING  FRUIT  INSECTS  AND  DISEASES  THAT  ARE  CON- 
TROLLED BY  SPRAYING 343-361 

ARSENICAL  POISONING  OF  FRUIT  TREES  .  .  361-363 


CHAPTER  X 

HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  THE  FRUIT 364-422 

PICKING  FRUITS 365-380 

When  to  pick 365-369 

Apples 366-367 

Pears 367-368 

Stone-fruits 368-369 

How  to  pick 370-374 

Ladders  for  picking 374-377 

Fruit-pickers  and  harvesters 377-380 

Necessity  of  hand-picking 380 

CARING  FOR  THE  FRUIT  AFTER  PICKING 380-383 

Keeping  records  with  the  pickers 380-383 

THE  GRADING  AND  PACKING  OF  FRUIT 383-407 

What  is  first-class  fruit? 383-384 

The  grading 384-385 

The  packages 386-392 

How  to  pack 392^00 

Box-packing  of  fruits 400-407 

FARM  PACKING-HOUSES  AND  APPLIANCES 407-413 

STORING  FRUITS  AT  THE  FARM 413-422 

Requisites  for  domestic  storage  without  ice 415-418 

Farm  storage  buildings 418-422 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  FRUIT- 
GROWING 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  FIELD  OF  INQUIRY 

'!T  is  natural  for  a  fruit-plant  to  bear.  There  are  cer- 
tain hindrances,  however,  that  must  be  overcome;  and 
the  better  the  conditions  under  which  the  plant  is  placed, 
the  better  will  be  the  results  hi  the  production  of  accept- 
able fruit. 

The  whole  subject  of  producing  fruit  is  known  as 
fruit-growing  or  pomology.  This  subject  comprises  the 
art  of  raising  and  handling  fruits  and  fruit-plants,  and 
the  applications  of  the  various  sciences  thereto.  It  is 
impossible  exactly  to  define  what  a  fruit  is,  in  the  sense 
in  which  the  term  is  understood  in  pomological  writings. 
It  is  best  delimited  by  giving  a  list  of  the  products  that 
are  commonly  known  as  fruits.  If  a  definition  were 
attempted  of  the  pomological  use  of  the  word,  it  would 
be  approximately  correct  to  say  that  a  fruit  is  the  edible 
product  mostly  of  a  woody  or  a  tree-like  plant — as  of  a 
tree,  bush,  or  vine — that  is  intimately  associated  in  its 
development  with  the  flower.  This  conception  of  a  fruit 
is  unlike  the  botanical  idea,  for  the  botanist  defines  the 
fruit  to  be  the  ripened  pericarp  and  attachments.  It 
should  be  said,  however,  that  this  confusion  in  terminology 
A  (1) 


2   ,  V.  <  ;,       ,  The  Prindples  of  Fruit-growing 

is  not  the  fault  of  the  horticulturist,  for  the  botanists 
have  given  a  special  or  technical  meaning  to  a  common- 
language  word.  The  word  belongs  primarily  to  general 
literature  and  horticulture,  and  if  the  botanist  desires 
to  impress  it  into  other  service,  he  must  be  prepared  to 
accept  the  confusion  that  arises. 

The  ' 'fruit"  of  the  pomologist  is  not  defined  in  terms 
of  botanical  structure.  It  may  be  a  ripened  pericarp  (or 
ovary),  as  in  the  currant,  gooseberry,  cranberry,  grape, 
plum,  peach,  orange,  olive;  an  ovary  or  pericarp  im- 
mersed in  a  receptacle,  as  the  pomes,  comprising  apples, 
pears,  quinces;  a  greatly  enlarged  fleshy  receptacle  bear- 
ing achenes,  as  the  strawberry;  an  aggregation  of  peri- 
carps, as  in  the  raspberry,  or  combined  with  the  recep- 
tacle, as  in  the  blackberry;  an  aggregation  of  thickened 
flowers  and  flower-parts,  as  in  the  mulberry  and 
pineapple;  a  nut  inclosed  in  a  husk,  as  in  hazel  and 
chestnut. 

Among  fruit-growers,  several  large  classes  of  fruits 
are  recognized,  as  stone-fruits,  pome-fruits,  citrous 
fruits,  berries,  grapes,  and  nuts;  or  the  division  may  be 
orchard-  or  tree-fruits,  grapes,  small-fruits  or  berries. 
None  of  these  classifications  is  inclusive  or  exact;  and  it 
would  not  be  profitable  to  enlarge  on  the  discussion  here. 

INVENTORY   OF  FRUITS 

Pomological  fruits  may  be  roughly  classified  under 
four  heads  from  the  cultural  point  of  view, — tree-fruits, 
vine-fruits,  small-fruits,  and  herb-like  fruits.  The  follow- 
ing is  an  inventory  of  the  staple  fruits  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  and  of  many  of  those  lesser  known  species 
which,  having  been  tried  in  this  territory,  either  give 


The  Species  of  Fruits  3 

promise  of  successful  cultivation  here  or  have  been  more 
or  less  prominent  subjects  of  discussion  or  sale: 

CLASS  I.    ORCHARD*  CULTURE,  OR  TREE-FRUIT  CULTURE. 

SUBCLASS  1.    Pomaceous  fruits. 

Apple,  Pyrus  Mains. 

Crab-apple,  Pyrus  baccata  and  P.  prunifolia. 

Prairie  crab,  Pyrus  ioensis. 

Atlantic  crab,  Pyrus  coronaria. 

Pear,  Pyrus  communis. 

Sand  pear,  Pyrus  serotina. 

Quince,  Cydonia  oblonga. 
/  Chinese  quince,  Chaenomeles  sinensis. 
/  Japan  quince,  Chxnomeles  japonica. 
xMaule's  quince,  Chaenomeles  Maulei. 

Medlar,  Mespilus  germanica. 

Loquat,  Eriobotrya  japonica. 

SUBCLASS  2.    Drupaceous  or  stone-fruits. 
Common  plum,  Prunus  domestica. 
Bullace,  mirabelle  and  damson  plum,  Prunus  insilitia. 
Cherry  and  myrobalan  plum,  Prunus  cerasifera. 
Japan  plum,  Prunus  triflora. 
American  plum,  Prunus  americana. 
Canada  plum,  Prunus  nigra. 
Hortulana  plum,  Prunus  hortulana. 

Chickasaw  plum,  Prunus  angustifolia  and  P.  Munsoniana 
Sand  plum,  Prunus  Watsoni. 
Beach  plum,  Prunus  maritima. 
Pacific  plum,  Prunus  subcordata. 
Apricot  plum,  Prunus  Simonii. 
Sweet  cherry,  Prunus  Avium. 
Sour  cherry,  Prunus  Cerasus. 
Sand  cherry,  Prunus  Besseyi. 
Peach  and  nectarine,  Prunus  Persica. 
Apricot,  Prunus  armeniaca. 
Japan  apricot,  Prunus  Mume. 
Purple  apricot,  Prunus  dasycarpa. 

*0rchard,  an  inclosure,  assemblage  or  plantation  of  fruit  trees.  Oranges  are 
commonly  said  to  be  grown  in  "groves."  The  word  orchard  is  not  used  in  this 
country  for  the  shrub  fruits. 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

SUBCLASS  3.    Citrous  fruits. 

Common  or  sweet  orange,  Citrus  sinensis. 
Sour  or  Seville  orange,  Citrus  Aurantium. 
King  orange,  mandarin,  tangerine,  and  satsuma  orange,  Citrus 

nobilis. 

Calamondin  orange,  Citrus  mitis. 
Citron,  Citrus  Medico,. 
Lemon,  Citrus  Limonia. 
Lime,  Citrus  aurantifolia. 

Grapefruit,  Shaddock  or  Pomelo,  Citrus  grandis. 
Kumquat,  Citrus  japonica. 
Trifoliate  orange,  Pondrus  trifoliata. 
Glycosmis,  Glycosmis  aurantiaca. 
/Lime  berry,  Triphasia  trifoliata. 
/White  sapote,  Casimiroa  edulis. 

SUBCLASS  4.    Moraceous  fruits. 

Fig,  Ficus  Carica,  F.  Sycomorus. 
k*'   White  (and  Russian)  mulberry,  Morus  alba. 

Black  mulberry,  Morus  nigra. 
i.    Red  mulberry,  Morus  rubra. 

Downing  mulberry,  Morus  multicaulis. 

Japan  mulberry,  Morus  japonica. 
^Bread-fruit,  Artocarpus  incisa. 
^Jack-fruit,  Artocarpus  integrifolia. 

UBCLASS  5.    Annonaceous  fruits. 
Sour-sop,  Annona  muricata. 
Sweet-sop,  sugar-apple,  Annona  sguamosa. 
Cherimoya,  Annona  Cherimola. 
Custard-apple,  Annona  reticulata. 
Pond-apple,  Annona  glabra. 
And  other  annonas. 
Northern  papaw,  Asimina  trttoba. 

SUBCLASS  6.    Myrtaceous  fruits. 

Guava,  Psidium  Guajava,  and  others. 

Feijoa,  pineapple  guava,  Feijoa  Sellowiana. 

Rose-apple,  jamrosade,  Eugenia  Jambos. 

Surinam  cherry,  Eugenia  uniflora. 
iX  Jambolan,  Eugenia  janibolana. 
ix  And  other  eugenias. 


The  Species  of  Fruits  5 

^  SUBCLASS  7.    Sapotaceous  fruits. 
Sapodilla,  Achras  Sapota. 
Marmalade  tree,  Lucuma  mammosa. 
Star-apple,  Chrysophyllum  Cainito. 
And  others. 

SUBCLASS  8.    Anacardiaceous  fruits. 
Mango,  Mangifera  indica. 
Jew  plum,  Spondias  dulcis. 
Cashew,  Anacardium  occidentale. 

SUBCLASS  9.    Ebenaceous  fruits. 

Kaki  (Japan  persimmon),  Diospyros  Kaki. 
Persimmon,  Diospyros  virginiana. 

SUBCLASS  10.    Leguminous  fruits. 
Tamarind,  Tamarindus  indica. 
St.  John's  Bread,  or  Carob,  Ceratonia  Siliqua. 

SUBCLASS  11.    Nut-fruits  (Nuciculture). 
Walnut,  Juglans  regia. 
Japan  walnut,  Juglans  Sieboldiana. 
Black  walnut,  Juglans  nigra. 
Butternut,  Juglans  cinerea. 
And  other  species  of  Juglans. 
Pecan,  Gary  a  Pecan. 

Shellbark  hickory,  Carya  ovata  and  C.  laciniosa. 
And  other  species  of  Carya. 
Beechnut,  Fagus  grandifo7ia. 
European  chestnut,  Castanea  saliva. 
American  chestnut,  Castanea  dentata. 
Japan  chestnut,  Castanea  crenata. 
Chinese  chestnut,  Castanea  mollissima. 
/  Chinquapin,  Castanea  pumila. 

Filbert,    cobnut,    Corylus  Avellana,    C.   Colurna,   C.  pontica,  C. 

maxima. 

Hazelnut,  Corylus  americana,  C.  rostrata,  and  others. 
.  Japan  hazelnut,  Corylus  Sieboldiana. 
Litchi,  Litchi  chinensis. 
Longyen,  Euphoria  Longana. 
/  Ginkgo,  Ginkgo  biloba. 
Almond,  Prunus  Amygdalus. 
Russian  almond,  PrunuS  nana. 


6  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

Tropical  almond,  Terminalia  Catappa. 
-  Pistacio,  Pistacio  vera. 
Pili  nut,  Canarium  ovatum. 
Brazil-nut,  Bertholletia  excelsa. 
Chile-hazel,  Gevuina  Avellana. 

SUBCLASS  12.    Palmaceous  fruits. 
Coconut,  Cocos  nucifera. 
Date,  Phoenix  dactylifera. 
^  Peach  palm,  Bactris  Gasipaes. 
And  other  palms. 

SUBCLASS  13.    Miscellaneous  tree-fruits. 

Olive,  Olea  europjea. 

Pomegranate,  Punica  Granatum. 

Papaw,  Carica  Papaya. 

Hovenia,  Hovenia  dulcis. 

Jujube,  Zizyphus  Jujuba,  and  others. 

Myrica,  Myrica  Nagi  (M.  rubra). 

Sea-grape,  Coccoloba  uvifera. 

Otaheite  gooseberry,  Phyllanthus  disticha. 

Spanish  lime,  Melicocca  bijuga. 

Avocado,  Persea  gratissima. 
x"- Strawberry  tree,  Arbutus  Unedo. 
^  Mammee  apple,  Mammea  americana. 
/      And  many  others. 

CLASS  II.  VINE-FRUIT  CULTURE. 
SUBCLASS  1.    Viticulture;  comprising 
Wine  grape,  Vitis  vinifera. 
Fox  grape,  Vitis  Labrusca. 
Slimmer  grape,  Vitis  aestivalis. 

Post-oak  grape,  turkey  grape,  Vitis  aestivalis  var.  Lincecumii. 
Herbemont  grape,  Vitis  sestivalis,  var.  Bourquiniana. 
Muscadine  and  scuppernong  grapes,  Vitis  rotundifolia. 
Sand  grape,  Vitis  rupestris. 
River-bank  grape,  frost  grape,  Vitis  vulpina. 
And  other  native  species  of  Vitis. 

SUBCLASS  2.    Passifloraceous  fruits. 
Granadilla,  Passiflora  edulis. 
And  others. 


The  Species  of  Fruits  7 

CLASS  III.   SMALL-FRUIT*  CULTURE  (THE  BERRIES). 

SUBCLASS  1.    Bush-fruits.t 

Group  a.    Rubaceous  fruits,  or  (bramble-fruits). 
Raspberry,  Rubus  idceus. 
Blackcap  raspberry,  Rubus  occidentalis. 
Red  raspberry,  Rubus  strigosus. 
Wineberry,  Rubus  phoenicolasius. 
Blackberry,  Rubus  nigrobaccus  and  other  species. 
Thornless  blackberry,  Rubus  canadensis. 
Evergreen  blackberry,  Himalaya  berry,  Rubus  laciniatus. 
Northern  dewberry,  Rubus  villosus,  R.  invisus. 
Southern  dewberry,  Rubus  trivialis. 
Pacific  dewberry,  Rubus  vitifolius. 

Group  6.    Ribaceous  fruits. 
Currant,  Ribes  vulgare. 
Black  currant,  Ribes  nigrum. 
Buffalo  currant,  Ribes  aureum. 
Gooseberry,  Ribes  Qrossularia. 
American  gooseberry,  Ribes  oxycanthoides  (or  R.  hirtellum). 

Group  c.    Blueberries. 

Swamp  or  High-bush  blueberry,  Vaccinium  corymbosum. 
Canada  blueberry,  Vaccinium  canadense. 
Low-bush  blueberry,  Vaccinium  pennsylvanicum. 

A      Group  d.    Miscellaneous  bush-fruits. 

Juneberry,  Amelanchier  oblongifolia,  A.  alnifolia  and  others. 

Buffalo  berry,  Shepherdia  argentea. 

Goumi,  Eloeagnus  multiflora. 

Caraunda,  Carissa  Carandas. 

Natal  plum,  Carissa  grandiflora. 

Amatungulu,  Carissa  bispinosa. 

*  Small- fruits.  A  term  applied  to  all  small  and  berry-like  fruits  produced 
on  bushes  or  perennial  herbaceous  plants;  as  currant,  blackberry  raspberry, 
strawberry.  In  Europe  the  strawberry  is  classed  with  garden  vegetables,  and 
melons  are  often  treated  with  the  fruits.  Small-fruits  is  an  American  term. 

^Bush-fruits.  Fruits  borne  on  bushes,  or  small  woody  plants  destitute  of 
a  central  stem  or  axis.  It  is  an  English  term,  and  is  equivalent  to  small-fruits, 
except  that  it  does  not  include  the  strawberry. 


8  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

SUBCLASS  2.    Strawberry-fruits. 

Garden  strawberry,  Fragaria  chiloensis. 
Hautbois  strawberry,  Fragaria  moschata. 
Alpine  strawberry,  Fragaria  vesca. 
Virginian  strawberry,  Fragaria  virginiana. 
Everbearing  strawberry,  Fragaria  mexicana. 

SUBCLASS  3.    Cranberry-fruits. 

Common  cranberry,  Vacdnium  macrocarpon. 
Cowberry,  Vacdnium  Vitis-Idaea. 

CLASS  IV.   MISCELLANEOUS  NON-WOODY  OR  HERB-LIKE  FRUITS. 

SUBCLASS  1.    Musaceous  fruits. 
Banana,  Musa  Sapientum. 
Plantain,  Musa  paradisiaca. 

SUBCLASS  2.    Pineapple. 

Common  pineapple,  Ananas  sativus. 

SUBCLASS  3.    Cactaceous  fruits. 

Prickly  pear,  Opuntia  Tuna,  and  others. 
Indian  fig,  Opuntia  Ficus-indica. 
Barbadoes  gooseberry,  Pereskia  aculeata. 

SUBCLASS  4.    Other  herb-like  fruits. 

Cyphomandra,  Cyphomandra  betacea. 
Cerinam,  Monster  a  deliciosa. 


THE  COURSE  OF  DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  FRUIT  REGION 

Fruit-growing  has.  usually  been  a  comparatively  late 
development  in  any  region.  The  epochs  that  precede 
the  agricultural  occupation  of  a  country  are  commonly 
about  as  follows:  Discovery,  exploration,  hunting,  specu- 
lation, lumbering,  or  mining.  The  real  and  permanent 
prosperity  of  a  country  begins  when  the  agriculture  has 
evolved  so  far  as  to  be  self-sustaining  and  to  leave  the  soil 
in  constantly  better  condition  for  the  growing  of  plants. 


From  Lumbering  to  Fruit-growing  9 

Lumbering  as  now  practised,  and  mining,  are  simply  means 
of  utilizing  a  reserve  that  nature  has  laid  by,  and  these 
industries,  therefore,  are  self-limited,  and  are  constantly 
moving  on  into  unrobbed  territory.  Agriculture,  when  at 
its  best,  remains  forever  in  the  same  place,  and  gains  in 
riches  with  the  years;  but  in  this  country  it  has  so  far  been 
mostly  a  species  of  mining  for  plant-food,  and  then  a  rush- 
ing on  for  virgin  lands. 

The  first  effort  in  an  agricultural  region  is  usually  the 
growing  of  the  staple  crops,  as  the  grains  or  breadstuffs. 
This  is  both  because  the  capabilities  of  the  country  are  all 
unknown,  and  because  such  regions  are  far  removed  from  the 
markets,  and  must,  therefore,  grow  such  commodities  as 
can  be  stored  or  shipped  long  distances;  and  it  may  be 
said,  also,  that  the  growing  of  these  crops  in  a  new  country 
demands  comparatively  little  special  skill.  Moreover,  the 
new  lands  are  cheap,  and  the  supply  of  labor  is  small; 
and  grain-raising  and  cattle-ranging  are  economically 
possible.  The  second  development  is  very  often  a  well- 
regulated  stock-raising  or  grazing  industry. 

If  the  country  possesses  special  adaptabilities  for  fruits, 
a  man  here  and  there  will  be  found  enlarging  his  orchards 
or  small-fruit  plantations,  and  in  time  there  is  a  wide- 
spread change  from  general  farm  practices  to  fruit-grow- 
ing. The  growing  of  specialties,  or  perishable  products, 
or  those  that  are  essentially  luxuries,  demands  the  finer 
skill,  the  more  developed  ideals,  and  the  less  fluctuating 
employments  of  an  old  or  at  least  of  a  well-settled  country; 
and  it  is  in  such  areas,  also,  that  the  best  special  markets 
are  to  be  found.  It  has  been  a  frequent  experience  that 
when  any  area  has  fully  committed  itself  to  the  raising 
of  any  particular  fruit,  the  business  is  devoted  too  exclu- 
sively to  one  product  and  the  individual  farms  may  not  be 


10  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

good  economic  units.  The  lesson  is  that  mixed  industries 
are  best  for  any  community,  even  though  the  region  make 
a  specialty  of  one  or  of  a  few  commodities,  and  that  it  is 
practically  impossible  to  reduce  the  agriculture  of  any 
large  region  to  a  dead  level  of  uniformity.  The  diversity 
of  industries  also  brings  a  diversity  of  population. 

In  the  present  development  of  the  newer  parts  of  North 
America,  however,  these  stages  in  the  evolution  of  fruit- 
growing may  not  be  marked.  Fruit  has  now  come  to  be 
such  a  standard  commodity  that  virgin  areas  in  newly 
opened  regions  may  be  developed  at  once  as  fruit  lands; 
but  there  is  a  large  element  of  risk  in  such  undertakings 
in  virgin  regions. 

THE   DETERMINANTS   IN   FRUIT-GROWING 

Fruit-growing,  in  common  with  all  agricultural  pur- 
suits, thrives  best  in  certain  geographical  areas.  That  is, 
the  business  is  not  capable  of  equal  development  in  all 
parts  of  the  country. 

Four  of  the  most  apparent  determinants  of  the  distri- 
bution of  fruit-growing  may  be  mentioned  briefly.  The 
distribution  of  fruits  may  also  be  studied  in  their  relations 
to  life-zones,  and  particularly  as  determining  the  adapta- 
bilities of  varieties  (see  for  example,  Bull.  No.  10,  Div.  of 
Biol.  Surv.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.,  1898,  by  C.  Hart  Merriam, 
on  "Life  Zones  and  Crop  Zones,"  as  one  of  the  early  con- 
tributions to  the  subject).  The  leading  determinative 
factor  in  the  distribution  of  fruit-culture  is  climate.  The 
particular  factor  of  climate  that  determines  the  fruit- 
zones  differs  with  each  type  group  of  fruits;  but  in  gen- 
eral it  may  be  said  that  the  relative  annual  temperature  is 
the  most  influential  factor. 


The  Climatal  Zones  11 

The  temperature  determinant. 

It  is  customary  to  recognize  three  general  climatal 
fruit-zones, — the  temperate  (typified  by  the  apple  and 
the  peach),  the  semi-tropical  (citrous  tribes,  fig,  olive, 
pomegranate),  and  the  tropical  (coconut,  banana,  annona, 
mango).  There  are  no  positive  limits  of  temperature  to 
mark  off  or  separate  these  zones;  but  it  is  sufficient  for  our 
purpose  to  say  that  the  temperate  zone  is  marked  by  a 
long  winter  of  freezing  and  by  the  deciduous  types  of 
fruits;  in  the  semi-tropical  zone  the  winter  is  a  short  sea- 
son of  light  frosts  or  only  occasional  freezes,  and  the  fruit 
trees  are  evergreen  or  very  nearly  so;  and  the  tropical 
zone  is  frostless,  and  is  marked  by  evergreen  and  largely 
ever-growing  fruit-plants. 

The  limits  of  these  climatal  zones  are  exceedingly 
devious.  In  eastern  North  America,  the  northern  limit  of 
profitable  fruit-growing  is  not  far  from  the  45th  parallel, 
and  the  limit  sinks  considerably  lower  than  this  in  the 
Middle  West,  and  rises  much  above  it  on  the  Pacific  slope. 
The  northern  limit  of  the  subtropical  zone  in  the  East  is 
northern  Florida  and  a  narrow  area  skirting  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  on  the  western  side  of  the  continent  it  extends 
in  the  valley  climates  as  high  as  the  40th  parallel.  The 
only  part  of  the  tropical  fruit-zone  in  the  United  States  is 
in  extreme  southern  Florida,  comprising  about  2  degrees 
of  latitude  (reaching  northward  to  about  27°).  Beyond 
all  these  bounds  are  special  localities  in  which  fruits  of  the 
adjacent  zone  may  thrive  for  a  series  of  years,  and  the  fruits 
of  contiguous  zones  overpass.  The  strawberry  is  probably 
the  most  tractable  of  all  our  fruits  as  respects  climate, 
because  its  stature  and  habit  allow  it  to  be  protected  from 
extreme  cold,  and  its  short  period  of  growth  allows  it  to 
thrive  in  the  cool  season  of  the  subtropical  regions. 


12  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

The  annual  temperature  of  a  region  is  chiefly  deter- 
mined by  four  factors, — the  latitude,  the  altitude,  the 
physical  configuration,  and  the  proximity  or  remoteness 
of  large  bodies  of  water. 

The  moisture  determinant. 

The  second  chief  factor  of  climate  in  determining  the 
fruit-zones  is  relative  humidity.  Whilst  the  isotherms — 
or  lines  of  equal  temperatures — run  easterly  and  westerly, 
the  isohyetals — or  lines  of  equal  rainfall — have  no  in- 
trinsic direction.  They  are  determined  by  physiographical 
features.  In  the  United  States,  we  might  recognize 
very  roughly  six  general  fruit-zones  marked  by  pecu- 
liarities of  rainfall.  These  are  the  Atlantic  zone,  a  moist 
area  bounded  westward  approximately  by  the  Mississippi 
River;  the  Plains  zone,  extending  westward  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  mostly  of  low  rainfall  and  in  some  parts  semi- 
arid;  the  inter-mountain  region,  being  mostly  arid  and 
requiring  irrigation;  the  Sonoran  zone  of  New  Mexico 
and  Arizona  and  southward;  the  California  region,  mostly 
arid  and  semi-arid;  the  upper  Pacific  region,  comprising 
the  humid  belt  of  Oregon,  Washington,  and  British  Colum- 
bia. Within  all  these  regions  are  geographical  areas  of 
special  precipitation  conditions.  The  interior  or  plains 
region  is  particularly  trying  to  fruits  because  of  the  strong 
and  dry  winter  winds,  which  evaporate  the  moisture  from 
the  trees  while  the  ground  is  often  so  deeply  frozen  that 
the  roots  cannot  supply  moisture.  There  is  probably 
always  evaporation  from  tree  tops  in  the  winter  when  the 
air  is  drier  than  the  wood.  The  fact  that  moisture  may  be 
lost  from  winter  twigs  is  a  most  important  consideration 
in  the  study  of  the  winter  injury  of  trees,  and  it  throws 
light  upon  the  severe  damage  that  often  follows  the  "dry 


Soil  Adaptations  13 

freezing"  of  nursery  trees  in  transit  and  of  fall-planted 
trees. 

4^-^ 

The  soil  determinant. 

There  are  special  adaptations  of  fruits  to  soils.  Pomol- 
ogists  have  been  well  aware  of  this  fact  as  a  general  truth, 
but  only  recently  has  close  attention  been  given,  in 
this  country,  to  the  minor  and  detailed  applications  of  it. 
It  is  well  understood  that  pears  flourish  best  in  clay  soils 
and  peaches  best  in  sandy  or  at  least  in  open  soils,  but 
no  doubt  there  are  distinct  preferences  in  the  varieties 
of  pears  and  peaches  themselves.  It  is  possible,  hi  fact, 
that  each  distinct  family  or  type  of  varieties  of  any 
species  has  preferences  of  land  and  location,  and  it  will 
be  the  business  of  coming  generations  to  determine  what 
these  peculiarities  are.  With  the  increasing  refinements 
and  competitions  of  the  future,  the  special  and  local 
problems  must  receive  more  and  more  attention.  If  these 
positions  are  well  taken,  it  must  follow  that  the  promis- 
cuous and  wholesale  dissemination  of  a  few  varieties  over 
the  country  must  eventually  cease,  and  that  local  and 
special  sorts  must  constantly  tend  to  drive  out  the  cos- 
mopolitan and  general  varieties. 

These  questions  of  soil  adaptations  for  fruits  have  been 
made  the  subject  of  study  over  a  wide  range  by  Wilder 
of  the  national  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  he  is  able 
to  discuss  the  soil  requirements  of  the  Baldwin  apple, 
the  Wagener,  Spy,  Hubbardston,  Gravenstein,  and  others, 
with  considerable  definiteness.  He  points  out  that  the 
common  advice  as  to  "any  deep,  well-drained  soil,  on 
hill  or  slope/'  being  adapted  to  apple-growing  is  not 
sufficiently  exact  and  discriminating.  "The  loss  from 
choosing  a  soil  for  orchard  planting  that  is  not  adapted 


14  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

to  the  purpose  is  so  much  more  serious  than  a  similar 
mistake  with  an  annual  crop  that  too  much  care  can 
scarcely  be  taken  in  selecting  the  most  suitable  soils 
located  on  sites  otherwise  favorable."  (Tribune  Farmer, 
April  3,  1913.) 

Many  fruits  are  very  cosmopolitan  as  to  soils,  although 
probably  none  of  them  is  indifferent  to  even  comparatively 
minor  variations  in  land.  Of  the  temperate  tree-fruits,  the 
apple  undoubtedly  has  the  most  generalized  adaptabilities 
to  soils,  and  this  is  closely  followed  by  the  domestica  plum. 
Among  semi-tropical  fruits,  the  orange  thrives  in  a  wide 
range  of  soils.  The  peach  and  grape  are  more  exacting, 
and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  pineapple. 

Now  and  then  fruits  are  made  to  grow  in  uncongenial 
soils  by  working  them  on  adaptive  stocks.  Thus  the  plum 
is  said  to  thrive  best  in  sandy  regions  when  it  is  budded  on 
the  peach,  the  pear  is  recorded  as  sometimes  grown  on 
very  light  lands  by  working  it  on  the  mountain-ash, 
and  the  mahaleb  cherry  is  thought  by  most  persons  to  be 
a  better  stock  for  strong  soils  than  for  light  soils.  We  may 
look  for  the  time  when  certain  varieties  of  the  same  spe- 
cies may  be  selected  as  stocks  for  given  soils.  But  all  this 
forced  adaption  to  soils  is  a  very  special  matter,  and  it 
only  illustrates  the  more  strongly  the  great  importance  of 
giving  particular  attention  to  the  general  subject  of  the 
adaptabilities  of  species,  varieties,  and  even  of  strains,  to 
variations  in  soils. 

The  grower  should  give  particular  attention  to  the 
character  of  the  land.  An  experienced  fruit-grower  com- 
monly determines  whether  the  land  is  adaptable  by  its 
"looks;"  and  this  suggests  that  the  novice  secure  the  ad- 
vice of  an  experienced  person  if  he  would  choose  a  farm  for 
fruit.  The  success  or  failure  of  existing  trees  or  orchards 


Soil  Adaptations  15 

in  the  neighborhood  may  give  some  indication  of  soil 
conditions.  If  the  region  is  soil-surveyed,  the  intending 
grower  should  attempt  to  recognize  the  successful  orchards 
on  the  soil-map.  In  a  few  cases,  special  studies  by  an  ex- 
pert have  been  made  of  the  soil  types  in  relation  to  fruits, 
and  advantage  should  always  be  taken  of  such  work. 

The  subsoil. — In  making  soil-determinations,  the  planter 
should  not  be  guided  by  the  character  of  the  surface-soil 
alone.  With  modern  methods  of  soil-examination,  the 
subsoil  is  always  taken  into  account.  Booth  goes  so  far 
(Okla.  Exp.  Sta.)  as  to  say  that  "The  character  of  the  sur- 
face-soil appears  to  have  little  or  nothing  to  do  with  mak- 
ing good  tree  land.  Good  orchards  will  be  found  on  all 
kinds  of  soils,  from  dense  clays  to  light  sands.  It  is  cer- 
tainly not  due  to  the  richness  of  the  soil,  for  many  of  the 
best  orchard  sections  of  the  United  States  have  thin  soils 
which  require  constant  feeding.  In  fact,  there  is  only  one 
thing  which  is  found  constantly  associated  with  good  or- 
chard land,  and  that  is  an  open  porous  subsoil.  The  adap- 
tability of  land  for  tree-growth  is  shown  by  the  character 
of  the  soil  from  1  to  6  feet  below  the  surface.  If  the 
land  is  satisfactory  for  4  feet  down,  usually  this  is  deep 
enough  for  satisfactory  tree-growth,  although  6  feet  is 
better.  The  average  farmer  knows  but  little  about  his  land 
below' the  bottom  of  the  furrow  made  by  the  plow,  so  that 
he  is  frequently  but  little  better  fitted  to  say  where  his 
trees  should  be  planted  than  someone  who  has  never  seen 
the  land. 

"There  are  many  ways  of  becoming  acquainted  with 
the  subsoil.  One  of  the  [best  is  by  the  use  of  a  spade. 
The  digging  of  a  few  holes  5  or  6  feet  deep  in  different  parts 
of  the  farm  will  reveal  an  astonishing  amount  of  informa- 
tion as  to  the  character  of  the  subsoil.  The  number  of 


16  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

holes  necessary  to  give  satisfactory  information  as  to  the 
character  of  the  underlying  strata  will  vary.  If  it  be  found 
that  half  a  dozen  holes  dug  in  a  certain  5-  or  10-acre  tract 
give  practically  the  same  result  in  each  case,  it  may  usually 
be  assumed  that  these  indicate  the  general  character  of 
the  subsoil.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  verdict  is  variablej 
more  holes  will  have  to  be  dug  until  the  limits  of  the  differ- 
ent formations  are  shown.  Where  neither  rocks  nor  stones 
are  present,  this  work  may  be  done  more  quickly  and  quite 
as  satisfactorily  with  a  ground-auger  as  with  a  spade.  A 
home-made  auger  is  usually  quite  as  satisfactory  for  this 
purpose  as  the  more  expensive  article  purchased  on  the 
market.  Take  an  old  1J^-  or  2-inch  wood-auger  and  have 
the  local  blacksmith  weld  it  to  the  end  of  a  6-foot  length 
of  %-inch  pipe  or  3/2-inch  wrought  iron  rod.  The  welding 
of  a  short  cross-piece  at  the  top  completes  the  device. 

"An  open  porous  subsoil  insures  drainage  and  thus  pro- 
motes the  establishment  of  deep  feeding  roots.  Trees  with 
such  root-systems  are  not  subject  to  the  vicissitudes  of  vary- 
ing seasons  to  the  same  extent  as  those  of  a  shallower  root- 
system.  .  .  .  The  capacity  to  penetrate  impervious 
subsoils  does  not  depend  on  the  boring  power  of  the  root- 
tip.  All  roots  have  a  boring  power  which  is  quite  sufficient 
to  force  their  way  down  in  any  ordinary  subsoil.  The  rea- 
son for  the  absence  of  roots  is  that  they  are  unable  to  live 
in  the  denser  soil,  owing  to  the  lack  of  the  necessary  air. 
Thus  it  will  be  found  that  a  soft  mucky  subsoil  is  quite  as 
efficient  a  barrier  to  root-growth  as  solid  rock." 

The  parasite  determinant. 

Inasmuch  as  many  of  the  organisms  that  seriously  in- 
terfere with  fruit-growing  are  more  or  less  restricted  in 
their  range,  it  would  seem  to  follow  that  the  zones  of  profit- 


Bugs  and  Things  17 

able  fruit-culture  may  be  determined  more  or  less  by  the 
parasite  factor.  A  moment's  reflection  will  show,  however, 
that  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  parasite  is  deter- 
mined primarily  by  climate  and  by  the  distribution  of  its 
host-plants;  so  that,  on  the  one  hand,  the  climatal  limit 
of  the  cultivation  of  the  fruit  may  be  approximately  the 
climatal  distribution  of  the  pest,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  parasite  may  be  local  or  cosmopolitan  according  as  the 
fruit  is  either  local  or  widely  grown. 

Many  of  the  common  pests  are  restricted  in  range 
because  they  have  not  yet  reached  the  full  limit  of  their 
distribution.  An  excellent  illustration  of  this  fact  is  the 
codlin-moth.  Once  Michigan  was  represented  to  be  the 
Eutopia  of  the  apple-grower  because  of  the  absence  of 
this  pest,  and  in  our  own  day  similar  recommendations 
have  been  made  of  far  western  states.  To  the  naturalist, 
however,  it  was  evident  from  the  first  that  the  insect  was 
following  closely  behind  the  apple  frontier,  as  a  storm 
follows  an  area  of  high  pressure. 

In  practice,  the  energetic  and  intelligent  fruit-grower 
.will  think  last  of  the  parasite  factor  when  locating  his 
plantation,  for  this  factor  is  variable  and  migratory,  and, 
moreover,  there  are  means  of  keeping  most  fruit  pests 
under  control.  Insects  and  fungi  are  of  course  to  be 
reckoned  with,  and  for  this  reason  they  are  the  direct  and 
perhaps  the  most  effective  means  of  keeping  the  farmer  hi 
a  state  of  mental  alertness.  There  are  a  few  cases,  of 
course,  to  which  these  remarks  will  not  well  apply,  but 
they  are  clearly  exceptions.  One  of  these  is  the  dreaded 
nematode  root-knot  of  the  southern  states,  and  one  might 
hesitate  in  planting  peaches  on  certain  land  where  it 
does  not  freeze  deep  enough  to  destroy  the  pest.  The  pro- 
fessional experimenters  can  determine  the  course  of  the 
B 


18  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

life-histories  of  the  various  pests,  and  can  point  out  their 
most  vulnerable  points,  and  may  even  devise  general  means 
for  their  eradication;  but  the  final  application  of  this  knowl- 
edge is  a  local  problem,  which  each  man  must  work  out  for 
himself.  Laws  are  only  secondary  means  of  keeping  in- 
sects and  diseases  in  check  on  a  man's  own  farm;  they  are 
chiefly  useful  in  providing  a  way  of  controlling  the  man 
who  is  neglectful,  ignorant,  or  devoid  of  public  responsi- 
bility. They  are  most  applicable  in  those  cases  in  which 
disease  is  more  or  less  permanent  or  perennial,  and  in 
which  there  is  no  practicable  recourse  but  to  destroy  the 
plant  or  the  part  affected.  Such  troubles  are  peach  yel- 
lows and  black-knot  of  the  plum  and  cherry.  A  law  can- 
not be  enforced  unless  public  sentiment  is  behind  it,  and 
when  public  sentiment  is  completely  aroused  the  law  may 
not  be  needed.  Yet  a  good  law  is  one  of  the  best  educators, 
and  if  properly  enforced  may  save  an  industry,  but  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  final  recourse  is  always 
greater  knowledge  and  enlightenment  on  the  part  of  the 
individual  growers. 

That  the  grower  may  not  expect  so  much  of  the  opera- 
tion of  laws  as  to  lessen  his  own  activity,  let  him  consider 
the  practical  difficulties  in  the  enforcement  of  them.  It  is 
practically  impossible  to  detect  the  eggs  of  insects  or 
spores  of  fungi  on  large  numbers  of  plants,  and  there  are 
many  natural  and  uncontrollable  ways  in  which  the  para- 
sites may  spread.  A  law  may  very  properly  require  that 
"whenever  any  trees,  plants,  or  vines,  are  shipped  into  this 
state  from  another  state,  every  package  thereof  shall  be 
plainly  labeled  on  the  outside  with  the  name  of  the  consignor, 
and  a  certificate  showing  that  the  contents  had  been  in- 
spected by  a  State  or  Government  officer,  and  that  the  trees, 
plants,  or  vines  therein  contained  are  free  from  all  San  Jose 


Inspection  19 

scale,  yellows,  rosette,  and  other  injurious  insect  or  disease;" 
yet  it  would  be  impossible  for  any  botanist  to  certify  that 
a  dormant  tree  were  certainly  free  of  all  disease ;  and  even 
in  the  matter  of  some  insects,  an  entomologist  could  not 
give  a  clean  bill  of  health  without  giving  more  time  to  the 
examination  of  the  tree  than  it  is  worth.  These  difficulties 
are  not  justification  for  opposition  to  statutes  or  for  in- 
difference to  them,  but  they  are  reasons  why  the  grower 
should  be  careful  to  avoid  a  false  security.  The  grower 
must  add  his  personal  endeavor,  and  watch  his  plantation 
minutely  with  his  own  eyes  even  if  it  has  passed  the 
scrutiny  of  the  inspector. 

A  knowledge  of  the  natural  history  of  the  pests  provides 
the  only  final  security.  Most  insects  and  diseases  are  be- 
yond the  reach  of  legislative  fiats.  Some  of  the  demands 
for  functionary  proceedings  against  the  bugs  recall  the 
laborious  efforts  of  the  Middle  Ages.  "At  one  time," 
writes  Fernald,  "a  thoroughgoing  procedure,  according  to 
all  the  rules  of  jurisprudence,  occurred  before  the  spiritual 
judge.  The  accused  insects  were  summoned,  and  in  case 
of  non-appearance,  which  always  occurred,  unless  the  in- 
sects were  moving  to  new  feeding-grounds  and  the  court- 
house happened  to  be  in  their  way,  a  proxy  was  appointed 
to  represent  the  accused  insects,  who  debated  the  whole 
subject  with  the  accuser,  after  which  judgment  was  ren- 
dered, invariably  against  the  accused  insect  in  the  form 
of  an  excommunication,  which  was  carried  into  effect 
only  when  the  insects  disappeared  at  the  time  of 
pupation." 

The  most  effective  legal  means  are  those  that  endeavor 
to  regulate  the  commerce  in  diseased  and  affected  plants, 
— to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  difficulty  rather  than  to 
solve  the  difficulty  on  a  given  plantation.  In  recent  years, 


20  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

a  useful  body  of  inspection  and  quarantine  laws  has  arisen 
that  puts  the  power  of  the  people  behind  the  effort  to  stop 
invasion.  It  is  to  be  expected  that  these  laws  will  tend 
toward  greater  uniformity  and  therefore  toward  greater 
effectiveness,  between  the  different  political  units  of  the 
country.  It  is  particularly  important  that  ports  of  entry 
and  points  of  distribution  be  watched.  The  grower  also 
must  recognize  that  he  has  no  right  carelessly  or  wantonly 
to  harbor  an  insect  or  a  disease  that  may  inflict  great 
damage  on  his  neighbors,  and  that  if  he  violates  this 
principle  he  is  morally  liable  (as  he  ought  to  be  legally 
liable)  to  correction. 

THE   OUTLOOK  FOR   FRUIT-GROWING 

Two  sets  of  factors  chiefly  control  or  determine  the 
outlook  of  the  fruit-grower:  the  ability  of  the  grower,  and 
the  prospective  conditions  of  the  market.  Few  persons 
appreciate  how  personal  a  thing  success  is:  yet  everyone 
knows  that  any  two  persons  placed  in  the  same  physical 
and  environmental  conditions,  and  given  an  equal  chance, 
will  arrive  at  very  different  results  in  business.  The  real 
directive  forces  are  matters  of  character  and  personality, 
of  which  the  most  important  requisites  seem  to  be  love 
of  the  occupation,  indomitable  energy,  cool  judgment, 
honesty,  and  ability  to  handle  the  details  of  the  business. 

It  is  not  probable  that  agricultural  products  are  to  be 
raised  in  too  large  quantities.  Both  population  and  rate 
of  consumption  are  increasing.  It  is  a  common  practice 
to  estimate  the  amount  of  fruit  which  will  be  produced  at 
any  given  time  in  the  future  by  multiplying  the  number 
of  acres  of  plantation  by  the  yield  of  a  normal  acre 
of  that  kind  of  fruit.  The  fallacy  in  these  calculations 


Competition  in  the  Business  21 

lies  in  the  fact  that  very  many  of  the  orchards  that  are 
planted  in  hope  and  expectation  yield  only  indifferent 
results. 

Not  often  is  there  a  sufficiency  of  the  best  in  any  com- 
modity. It  is  in  the  production  and  careful  marketing  of 
the  best  that  the  greatest  hope  lies  with  any  individual; 
and  this  raises  at  once  the  personal  qualifications.  A 
man  cannot  make  the  best  unless  he  has  ability  for  it. 
It  is  more  important,  therefore,  that  the  first  tillage  and 
fertilizing  and  pruning  and  spraying  be  applied  to  the 
man  rather  than  to  the  land  or  the  crop;  and  while  the 
man  is  acquiring  discipline  for  the  direct  prosecution  of 
his  business,  he  is  at  the  same  time  opening  his  mind  to 
all  the  satisfactions  of  living.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is 
commonly  a  surplus  of  the  ordinary.  In  fact,  it  is  the  ordi- 
nariness that  often  makes  it  a  surplus.  Now,  inasmuch  as 
most  men  are  ordinary,  it  follows  that  most  things  which 
they  make  will  be  ordinary;  and  it  does  not  matter  if  we 
raise  the  standard  of  all  men,  the  greater  part  will  still  be 
ordinary,  for  we  have  only  raised  the  ordinariness  of  the 
mass.  This  is  equivalent  to  saying  that  the  effort  at  excel- 
lence must  be  continuous  and  must  not  be  satisfied  with 
any  achievement. 

One  cannot  expect  to  escape  competition  in  the  fruit 
business.  As  a  rule,  the  best  results  are  to  be  anticipated 
when  one  grows  his  fruit  in  a  fruit-growing  region  in  com- 
pany and  in  competition  with  other  fruit-growers.  If 
every  occupation  is  already  full,  then  it  follows  that  the 
choice  of  an  occupation  resolves  itself  into  what  one  cares 
for  and  what  he  has  capital  for,  provided  always  that  he 
can  secure  the  proper  land  and  location  for  the  prosecu- 
tion of  the  business.  He  need  have  no  fear  of  his  success 
if  he  grows  what  people  want,  or  puts  it  up  so  as  to  make 


22  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

them  think  that  they  want  it.  In  its  common  levels,  fruit- 
growing, like  every  other  business,  is  undoubtedly  over- 
done, and  there  is  only  a  precarious  living  in  it.  This  is 
specially  illustrated  in  apple-growing, — to  which  the  least 
skillful  attention  has  been  given, — for  the  years  of  crop  are 
years  of  low  prices.  This  means  that  apple-growers  allow 
the  seasons  and  other  circumstances  to  dictate  the  bear- 
ing time  of  the  orchard,  and  when  one  man  has  a  crop  other 
men  may  have  a  crop.  Yet  there  is  no  fruit  that  comes  so 
near  to  being  a  staple  commodity  as  does  the  apple,  and 
none  that  has  a  longer  market  season,  or  is  capable  of 
manufacture  into  a  greater  number  of  secondary  products. 
The  demand  for  first-class  apples,  delivered  in  prime  con- 
dition at  the  proper  moment,  is  seldom  fully  satisfied. 

The  most  profitable  stock-in-trade  of  the  fruit-grower, 
therefore,  is  training  for  his  work;  and  if  a  good  part  of 
his  training  is  in  business  methods,  very  much  will  be 
gained,  for  there  are  probably  ten  men  who  can  grow  a 
given  quality  of  fruit  where  there  is  one  who  can  sell  it  to 
advantage.  All  this  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  many 
successful  farmers  were  not  brought  up  on  the  farm,  or 
they  soon  left  it  for  other  business.  Good  business  men 
are  likely  to  make  a  success  of  farming,  if  they  are  not 
too  old  and  if  they  have  learned  the  occupation.  They 
come  into  the  business  with  trained  minds,  skilled  judg- 
ment, and  especially  without  too  much  prejudice.  They 
are  willing  to  learn,  and  they  quickly  assimilate  new  ideas. 

There  are  most  important  non-commercial  rewards  in 
fruit-growing.  A  fruit-grower  need  not  set  before  himself 
the  single  standard  of  money-getting.  The  end  of  life  is 
satisfaction,  and  it  may  often  be  secured  just  as  well  on  a 
moderate  income  as  on  a  large  one.  It  is  one  of  the  bless- 
ings that  agriculture  bestows  on  both  the  individual  and 


Over-Production  23 

the  nation  that  it  may  make  its  workers  happy  and  com- 
fortable without  making  them  wealthy.  Of  all  the  lead- 
ing occupations,  perhaps  there  is  less  scramble  for  big 
money  in  agriculture  than  elsewhere;  and  for  this  reason 
the  farmer  should  remain  a  stalwart  and  conservative 
element  in  the  national  structure.  Farming  on  a  modest 
scale  is  capable  of  yielding  a  competent  income;  but  the 
larger  part  of  the  wealth  of  the  small  farmer  is  of  a  different 
kind  from  that  of  the  tradesman  or  manufacturer. 

All  these  remarks  raise  the  old  inquiry  as  to  whether 
there  is  an  over-production  of  fruit.  The  probability  is 
that  there  is  not  over-production  except  in  special  years; 
that  is,  that  there  is  not  more  fruit  grown  than  can  be  con- 
sumed in  one  way  or  another.  It  is  very  likely,  however, 
that  there  is  frequently  a  relative  over-production, — that 
there  is  more  fruit  grown  than  can  be  consumed  in  the  mar- 
kets that  are  ordinarily  at  the  reach  of  the  grower.  The 
difficulty  is  probably  rather  more  of  unequal  or  imperfect 
distribution  than  of  over-production  of  the  commodity. 
The  tendency  of  the  time  is  to  remedy  this  defect  by  more 
perfect  means  of  dissemination,  but  it  is  too  much  to  hope 
for  a  perfectly  equal  distribution  of  fruits,  since  the 
fruit  areas  are  more  or  less  limited  in  their  geographical 
position,  whereas  the  fruit-consuming  population  is 
distributed  far  and  wide ;  and  most  fruits  are  very  perish- 
able under  shipment.  When  there  are  heavy  gluts  in 
some  markets  and  fruit  does  not  pay  for  the  freight,  there 
are  often  other  places,  a  few  hundred  miles  away,  in  which 
the  commodity  is  insufficient  or  even  scarce.  The  intro- 
duction of  special  fruit  and  refrigerator  cars  and  the  better 
grading  and  the  practice  of  pre-cooling  have  lessened  the 
difficulties  of  distribution.  But  these  appliances  are  of  use 
mostly  to  organizations,  or  to  those  growers  who  have  a 


24  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

large  quantity  of  product;  or,  to  those  localities  in  which 
so  much  fruit  is  grown  that  the  community  of  interests 
amounts  to  an  organization. 

Of  course,  one  cannot  succeed  commercially  in  the 
growing  of  fruit  if  his  land,  location,  and  climate  are  not 
proper,  even  though  he  may  have  all  the  personal  qualifica- 
tions for  the  business;  but  if  he  has  these  personal  quali- 
fications, he  will  probably  not  choose  unfavorable  or  im- 
possible conditions.  Many  orchards  reared  with  the  great- 
est care  and  looking  well  in  photographs  are  on  lands  un- 
suited  to  the  production  of  profitable  yields;  or  they  may 
be  in  frosty  localities,  or  too  far  from  market  or  shipping 
stations,  or  be  otherwise  seriously  handicapped.  These 
disabilities  must  all  be  eliminated  in  any  effective  discus- 
sion of  the  general  outlook  for  the  fruit  business;  and  this 
outlook  seems  to  the  writer  to  be  good. 

THE   ORGANIZING   OF   THE    BUSINESS 

Perhaps  the  last  thing  the  farmer  learns,  in  respect  to 
his  own  business,  is  thoroughly  to  master  his  local  problem. 
He  must  feel  that  his  problems  of  soil  and  exposure,  his 
limitations  of  capital,  and  his  own  tastes,  are  all  special 
and  possibly  unique,  and  he  must  then  begin  to  work  out 
his  results  for  his  particular  conditions.  From  books  and 
teachers  he  can  learn  principles  and  truths,  he  can  pick 
up  suggestions,  and  he  can,  above  all,  acquire  an  ability 
to  grasp  his  particular  situation;  but  he  must  solve  his 
problems  for  himself.  This  is  the  secret  of  that  close  and 
single-minded  attention  to  business  that  makes  for  the 
greatest  success. 

A  knowledge  of  the  details  and  the  local  special  require- 
ments should  enable  the  grower  to  organize  all  the  units 


The  Farm  Plan  25 

and  items  into  a  consistent  business  procedure,  or  to  sub- 
divide it  into  its  parts.  Merely  to  raise  fruit  is  not  the  end 
and  consummation  of  fruit-growing.  The  raising  of  the 
fruit  is  a  part  in  an  enterprise,  and  this  enterprise  should 
make  the  best  use  of  capital  and  of  labor  and  equipment, 
and  it  should  secure  the  greatest  results  with  the  least 
expenditure  of  effort.  In  other  words,  the  enterprise 
should  be  economically  efficient. 

Fruit-growing  is  preferably  one  part — perhaps  the 
leading  part — of  a  farm  scheme;  but  usually  it  should  not 
comprise  the  entire  farm  scheme.  Farm-management 
studies  have  shown  that  the  most  profitable  fruit-growing 
is  often  that  which  is  combined  with  general  farming. 

The  general  farm,  with  liberal  parts  of  it  devoted  to 
crops  other  than  fruit,  provides  economical  use  of  men, 
teams,  and  equipment  for  the  larger  part  of  the  year,  as 
also  a  stimulating  variety  in  work.  It  also  enables  the 
fruit-grower  to  produce  much  or  all  of  the  feed  and  bed- 
ding for  his  work  animals,  as  well  as  many  supplies  for 
his  family;  it  insures  him  against  years  of  failure  in  the 
fruit  crop. 

On  the  other  hand,  too  much  general  farming  directly 
detracts  from  the  fruit-growing  part  of  the  business.  Oats 
and  potatoes  must  be  planted  at  a  certain  time,  but  the 
orchards  may  wait.  What  one  gains  in  the  raising  of 
feed  and  other  supplies,  may  be  more  than  lost  in  the 
neglect  of  the  fruit-plantations.  Years  may  be  required 
to  repair  the  damage  accruing  from  one  or  two  seasons  of 
neglect  to  the  orchard,  with  the  stunted  growth,  lack  of 
pruning,  neglect  of  spraying,  injuries  from  borers,  and 
other  disabilities,  although  this  damage  may  not  be  im- 
mediately expressed  in  dollars  and  cents.  Where  the  happy 
mean  shall  be  drawn  between  a  business  devoted  too 


26  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

narrowly  and  exclusively  to  fruit-growing  and  one  demand- 
ing too  much  diversion  and  dividing  of  one's  energies,  only 
the  grower  himself  can  determine. 

It  is  certain  that  if  one  is  to  make  a  good  business  of 
fruit-growing,  he  must  devote  his  best  energies  to  it.  Other 
things  may  wait,  but  not  the  fruit-plantations.  He  must 
have  a  "feeling"  for  fruit  more  than  for  anything  else,  and 
the  fruit  must  have  first  call  on  men,  teams,  time,  and 
painstaking  oversight.  If  he  does  not  have  this  feeling,  he 
does  not  possess  the  essentials  of  a  fruit-grower.  The  pride 
of  a  fruit-farm  is  in  the  fruit. 

By  this  it  is  not  meant  that  the  fruit-farm  must  be  a 
"show  place."  Nothing  is  more  attractive  in  a  picture 
than  a  fruit-farm  with  rows  all  regular  and  uniform  and 
the  trees  or  bushes  all  complete  and  perfect,  and  with 
tillage  faultless;  and  yet  some  of  the  most  profitable 
fruit-plantations  exhibit  little  of  this  beauty  of  regu- 
larity. Perhaps  it  would  be  better  if  the  plantation  were 
more  comely  and  attractive,  but  this  condition  is  not 
necessary  to  success.  In  fact,  heavy  bearing  often  makes 
the  orchard  irregular;  and  if  there  are  many  varieties,  it  is 
impossible  to  secure  stereotyped  uniformity.  The  good 
fruit-farm  is  told  by  its  performance  and  not  by  its  looks. 

Caution  should  be  strongly  expressed  to  those  who 
would  undertake  fruit-farming  by  proxy.  Delegated  and 
absentee  farming  is  ineffective  enough  at  the  best,  but 
there  are  special  difficulties  in  fruit-farming  by  that 
method  or  lack  of  method.  One  year's  neglect  to  fight 
borers  and  other  pests  may  be  disastrous.  Every  tree  or 
bush  is  liable  to  special  injury,  from  winter-killing  or 
otherwise,  and  much  skill  may  be  required  to  repair  or 
overcome  the  damage.  It  is  alluring  to  anticipate  an 
orchard  waiting  for  one  on  retirement  from  active  busi- 


Absentee  Orcharding  27 

ness  and  which  has  been  grown  and  cared  for  by  others; 
but  if  the  plantation  has  good  care,  in  most  cases  it  will 
be  because  the  owner  maintains  a  complete  establishment 
of  work  animals,  tools  and  men  and  does  not  depend  on 
the  hiring  of  the  work  from  neighboring  farmers.  This 
means  a  general  farming  business.  The  costs  accumulate 
rapidly,  and  the  risks  are  heavy.  The  contingencies  and 
difficulties  are  more  than  anyone  can  foresee.  It  is  a  com- 
mon opinion  that  the  tilled  crops  from  the  orchard  land 
will  pay  for  the  care  of  the  orchard  until  it  comes  into 
bearing,  but  this  is  seldom  true  (if  the  orchard  receives 
good  care)  and  then  only  when  this  cropping  is  part  of  a 
good  farm  scheme  and  does  not  depend  on  fugitive  hired 
labor.  Purchasers  should  be  careful  of  orchard  land-schemes 
in  which  the  work  and  oversight  are  all  provided  for  in 
advance.  Orcharding  by  others  is  rarely  profitable. 

The  annual  cost  of  the  care  of  an  orchard  for  the  first 
five  years,  including  first  cost  of  trees,  pruning,  fertilizing, 
tilling,  cover-cropping,  interest  on  moderate-priced  land, 
may  be  expected  to  run  from  $25  to  $30  an  acre  if  one  has 
his  own  equipment  and  does  the  work  well. 

Cost-accounting. 

A  well-organized  business  plan  calls  for  a  system  of 
keeping  account  of  costs,  founded  on  an  annual  inventory 
and  an  analysis  of  the  labor  of  men  and  teams  and  ma- 
chinery on  each  crop  or  for  each  part  of  the  plantation, 
the  general  outlays,  and  the  receipts.  A  daily  work- 
report  is  necessary.  The  elaborate  bookkeeping  forms 
often  devised  for  farmers'  use  should  be  avoided.  It  is 
more  important  to  analyze  the  business  than  to  keep  a 
perfect  set  of  books.  Most  of  the  bookkeeping  blanks  do 
not  bring  out  the  facts  that  the  farmer  needs.  Warren 


28 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


gives  the  following  example  (Standard  Cyclopedia  of 
Horticulture)  of  a  useful  accounting  with  a  3-acre  apple 
orchard : 

WORK-REPORT  FOR  APPLE  ORCHARD. — THREE  ACRES 


M 

an 

He 

>rse 

Hrs. 

Min. 

Hrs. 

Min. 

April    1. 

Manured 

9 

45 

18 

May    8. 

2 

30 

5 

15. 

Pruned 

3 

25. 

27. 

Brush  hauled  and  burned  
Sprayed 

1 
16 

30 
30 

3 
13 

28. 

4 

30 

5 

31 

10 

15 

10 

June     1 

13 

45 

3 

45 

3. 

16 

30 

9 

4. 

9 

30 

5 

5. 
7. 
July  31.. 
Aug.  19  .  . 

Cleaned  and  put  up  sprayer  .  .  . 
Removed  borers  
Thinned  

14 
1 
7 
11 

15 
15 
30 

7 

20.. 

4 

Manured  

8 

30 

17 

Sept.    7.. 

Picked                

4 

15 

Oct.    11.. 

Hauled  barrels 

8 

16 

12.  . 

Picked  and  packed 

34 

30 

2 

30 

14.  . 

7 

2 

15.. 

Hauled  to  station 

11 
2 

30 
30 

5 
5 

17.. 

Picked  and  packed   

15 

45 

4 

18.  . 
19.  . 

12 

28 

30 
30 

2 

30 

21.  . 
25.  . 
26.  . 

'    :::::::::: 

22 
19 
25 

15 
30 
30 

1 
1 

28.. 

« 

36 

30.. 

' 

34 

30 

Hauled  to  station 

5 

30 

11 

31.  . 

Picked  and  packed  

21 

30 

1 

Nov.    4  .  . 

Selling  .... 

2 

1 

30 

6.  . 

Packed  .    . 

7 

30 

Picked  up  drops  

17 

3 

8.  . 
12.  . 

Hauled  to  station  
Got  ready  for  shipping  

10 

7 

15 
30 

8 

13.. 

Hauled  to  station  

4 

30 

9 

14.. 

9 

10 

15.. 

«        <i        <t 

9 

30 

14 

Dec.  10.  . 

Hauled  manure  

2 

4 

Total  hrs.  and  mins  

492 

45 

196 

15 

2T 


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Pr 
<M»O       lOCoW       (M 


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liHi-l         (NC^<N  rH         (^  Ol 

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(MOO       OOr-IOOOlO 


30  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

Much  may  be  learned  from  such  simple  records,  for 
the  mere  keeping  of  cost-accounts  is  not  the  end.  The  fol- 
lowing are  a  few  of  the  facts  that  the  farmer  used  in  the 
preceding  records  and  the  suggestions  derived  from  them : 

Total  crop:                                   Bus.  Total  crop:                                   Bus. 

Baldwin 421  Brought  forward 611 

Greening 93  Wagener 21 

Hubbardston 30  Spitzenburg 6 

Spy 23          Fall  Pippin 3 

King 22  — 

Snow _f          DropsandcuUs 105 

Carried  forward 611 

He  was  able  to  determine  the  yields  to  the  tree  of  dif- 
ferent varieties; 

Yields  to  the  acre  good  apples,  214  bushels; 

Yields  to  the  acre  culls  and  drops,  33  bushels; 

Percentage  of  culls  and  drops,  14; 

Total  receipts,  good  apples,  less  cost  of  barrels,  $233.07; 

Average  price  a  bushel,  good  apples,  without  barrels, 
36  cents; 

Hours  of  man-labor,  to  the  acre,  164; 

Hours  of  horse-labor,  to  the  acre,  65; 

Profit,  to  the  acre,  $17; 

Profit,  by  hour  of  man-labor,  10  cents; 

Cost,  by  bushel,  good  apples,  without  barrels,  28  cents; 

Profit,  by  bushel,  8  cents. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  cost  of  barrels  was  very  high 
owing  to  buying  late  in  the  season.  Ten  cents  a  barrel 
extra  cost  is  more  than  equal  to  the  profit  on  a  bushel  of 
apples,  or  one-third  of  the  entire  profit.  Usually  the  profit 
on  an  enterprise  can  be  greatly  changed  by  small  changes 
in  cost. 

The  profit  to  the  acre  is  in  addition  to  pay  for  use  of  land. 


The  Two  Markets  31 

If  all  the  profit  is  expressed  in  terms  of  land,  the  orchard 
paid  $27  an  acre  rent,  or  gave  a  profit  of  $14  an  acre. 

If  the  profit  is  all  expressed  in  terms  of  labor,  the 
orchard  paid  28  cents  an  hour  for  time  spent  on  it,  or 
gave  a  profit  of  10  cents  an  hour. 

THE   TWO   KINDS   OF   COMMERCIAL  FRUIT-GROWING 

With  the  foregoing  points  of  view  in  mind,  we  may 
make  a  further  contrast  of  the  two  aims  in  fruit-raising 
for  market.  We  may  classify  the  business,  in  respect  to 
the  objects  in  view,  into  the  fruit-growing  that  desires 
the  product  primarily  for  home  use,  and  into  that  which 
desires  it  primarily  for  market. 

Of  market  or  commercial  fruit-growing  there  are 
again  two  types — that  which  aims  at  a  special  or  personal 
market,  and  that  which  aims  at  the  general  or  open  market. 
The  ideals  in  these  two  types  of  fruit-growing  are  very 
unlike,  and  the  methods  and  the  varieties  that  succeed 
for  the  one  may  not  succeed  for  the  other.  The  man  who 
grows  fruits  for  the  special  market  has  a  definite  problem. 
The  product  is  desired  for  its  intrinsic  qualities;  and  special 
products  demand  special  prices.  The  man  who  grows  fruit 
for  the  world's  market  has  no  personal  customer.  The 
product  is  desired  for  its  extrinsic  or  market  qualities; 
and  the  world's  products  bring  the  world's  prices.  The 
special-market  fruit-grower  usually  works  on  a  small 
base.  The  world's  market  fruit-grower  works  on  a  large 
base;  or  he  sells  to  another  who,  by  combining  similar 
products  of  many  persons,  is  able  to  command  the  atten- 
tion of  the  market. 

It  is  the  large  base  on  which  American  fruit-growing 
is  established  that  enables  it  to  enter  European  markets. 


32  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

In  America  are  thousands  of  acres  of  one  variety,  and  the 
conditions  under  which  the  fruits  are  grown  are  so  similar 
as  to  produce  uniformity  in  the  product.  We  speak  one 
language,  and,  although  we  are  two  nations,  we  live  in 
practically  the  same  political  environment.  We  go  to 
Europe,  and  to  our  own  great  markets,  with  wholesale 
quantities. 

In  Europe,  on  the  contrary,  nearly  every  fruit-growing 
center  is  special;  it  may  be  unique.  The  industry  is  the 
outcome  of  years,  maybe  of  centuries,  of  local  effort  and 
tradition.  There  is  no  general  uniformity  of  methods  and 
varieties.  Community  of  interests  on  a  continental  base 
is  impossible.  There  are  insurmountable  difficulties  of 
physiography,  of  races,  languages  and  political  systems. 
In  the  staple  products,  the  European  grower  may  not  be 
able  to  compete  with  Americans  in  his  own  markets,  so 
long  as  those  markets  remain  naturally  open. 

The  American  fruit-grower  quickly  assimilates  new 
methods.  He  is  unfettered  by  tradition;  and  how  much 
this  means  only  those  can  understand  who  know  the 
European  customs  and  ideals.  He  is  bold  and  confident. 
He  easily  buys  and  sells  land.  He  controls  his  own  efforts 
and  destinies.  He  has  much  help  from  teachers  and  experi- 
ment stations. 

In  many  parts  of  Europe,  the  farmer  is  a  tenant,  and 
he  therefore  has  luvfle  interest  in  planting  trees.  But  even 
if  he  owns  land,  the  area  is  usually  small,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  there  are  many  very  large  individual  planta- 
tions. The  environments  of  the  Old  World  farmer  are 
relatively  inflexible.  The  result  is  that  his  methods  tend 
to  become  stereotyped  and  rigid.  He  lacks  the  inspiration 
that  comes  of  conditions  which  are  easily  recast  and 
modified.  His  small  areas  must  be  so  crowded  with  many 


Specialty  Fruit-Growing  33 

kinds  of  plants  that  machine-work  is  often  impossible. 
There  are  few  orchards  in  most  parts  of  Europe,  as  orchards 
are  understood  in  America,  meaning  an  area  devoted 
exclusively  to  tree-fruits  set  at  regular  distances  and  culti- 
vated systematically  with  labor-saving  machinery. 

For  these  and  other  reasons,  as  well  as  for  the  fact 
that  our  fruits  and  their  manufactured  products  are 
attractive  and  of  good  quality,  the  American  fruit-grower 
should  find  an  increasing  market  in  Europe.  But  the 
greater  the  quantity  sent  abroad,  the  more  discriminating 
will  that  market  become;  and  it  must  be  true  that  the 
brands  and  the  varieties  of  inferior  quality  tend  to  supply 
the  inferior  markets. 

But  if  American  fruit-growing  is  in  advance  of  the 
European  in  its  general  commercial  aspects,  it  is  equally 
true  that  the  European  is  in  advance  in  growing  for 
special  and  personal  uses.  The  narrowness  of  the  enter- 
prises, the  competition  in  restricted  areas,  the  respect  for 
traditional  methods  and  varieties,  conserve  the  very 
elements  that  appeal  to  the  discriminating  consumer, 
while,  at  the  same  time,  they  develop  great  skill  in  the 
fruit-grower.  The  care  bestowed  on  individual  plants, 
the  niceties  of  exposure  and  of  training,  the  patient  hand- 
work, may  almost  be  said  to  develop  special  traits  in  the 
fruits  themselves.  Such  fruits  may  not  find  a  place  in  the 
open  market,  but  for  that  very  reason  they  may  have  a 
higher  commercial  value. 

At  the  head  of  a  little  valley,  closely  shut  in  by  the 
Alps,  is  a  famous  apple  plantation.  The  trees  are  trained 
upright  on  the  opposite  sides  of  a  double  espalier  or  trellis, 
the  sides  of  which  are  less  than  2  feet  apart.  In  each  of 
these  rows,  the  trees  are  2  to  4  feet  asunder.  These  trellises 
are  perhaps  10  feet  the  one  from  the  other,  and  between 
c 


34  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

each  two  is  a  row  of  apples  on  cordons  or  single  horizontal 
wires;  and  in  the  intervals  potatoes  or  other  annual  crops 
are  often  planted.  Even  the  wires  that  brace  the  end  posts 
of  the  trellises  have  apple  trees  trained  on  them  like 
strands  of  vines.  Each  tree  is  trained  to  a  definite  number 
of  branches  or  arms,  and  even  the  fruit-spurs  are  carefully 
determined.  This  plantation  is  the  property  of  a  company 
whose  business  it  is  to  care  for  the  land  and  the  trees,  and 
to -find  a  market  for  the  fruit.  It  is  expensive  to  grow 
apples  in  this  way;  but  the  best  Calvilles  often  bring  a 
gulden  (about  41  cents)  apiece. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  lesson  the  American 
fruit-grower  has  yet  to  learn  is  the  fact  that  there  are  two 
types  of  effort  in  commercial  fruit-growing,  and  that 
there  may  be  pecuniary  reward  in  fruits  that  are  unknown 
in  the  market.  Failure  to  distinguish  these  two  categories 
is  the  result  of  a  confusion  of  ideas.  One  grows  fruit  either 
for  a  special  and  personal  market,  in  which  case  he  looks 
for  his  own  customer  and  is  independent  of  general  trade; 
or  he  grows  what  the  market  demands,  and  allows  the 
machinery  of  trade  to  handle  the  product.  In  the  latter 
effort,  the  American  fruit-grower  is  preeminent;  but  in 
the  former  he  has  made  little  more  than  a  beginning. 

GARDEN  AND  AMATEUR   FRUIT-GROWING 

The  point  of  view  of  most  current  American  writing 
on  fruits  is  to  give  advice  for  the  management  of  the 
commercial  plantation.  There  is  another  large  realm  of 
fruit-growing,  however,  that  must  not  be  overlooked,  and 
which  is  as  much  worth  the  while  within  its  sphere  or 
place:  this  is  the  growing  of  fruits  for  home  use  and  for 
the  personal  satisfaction  in  the  effort.  Once  the  amateur 


The  Fruit-Garden  35 

or  connoisseur  growing  was  relatively  more  important, 
even  in  North  America;  that  time  preceded  the  great 
commercial  extension.  The  prominent  American  porno- 
logical  writers  made  their  reputation  mostly  in  the  ama- 
teur field,  as  the  Downings,  Robert  Manning,  Wilder, 
Thomas,  Kendrick,  Cox,  and  others.  At  one  time,  a 
pleasant  collection  or  museum  of  growing  fruits  was 
considered  to  be  a  part  of  a  good  private  estate ;  but  instead 
of  the  fruit-garden  for  fancy  and  for  keen  enjoyment,  it  is 
now  the  custom  to  grow  collections  of  shrubs,  native 
plants,  roses  or  other  plants,  and  to  pay  great  heed  to 
lawns,  ornamental  planting,  and  landscape  designs. 

It  is  much  to  be  desired  that  the  fruit-garden  shall 
return  to  men's  minds,  with  its  personal  appeal  and  its 
collections  of  many  choice  varieties,  even  the  names  of 
which  are  now  unknown  to  the  fruit-loving  public.  The 
discriminating  admiration  of  fruits  for  odor,  good  form 
and  color,  and  for  choice  quality  is  little  known  amongst 
us  today.  Our  desire  for  fruits  is  mostly  uncritical,  easily 
contented,  and  confined  within  narrow  and  uninteresting 
limits.  Such  fruits  as  the  Ben  Davis  apple,  Kieffer  pear, 
and  Elberta  peach  have  done  much  to  deprave  the  pub- 
lic taste  and  to  lower  the  level  of  appreciation.  The 
commercial  market  ideals  have  come  to  be  controlling, 
and  most  fruit-eaters  have  never  eaten  a  first-class  apple 
or  pear  or  peach,  and  do  not  know  what  such  fruits 
are;  and  the  names  of  the  choice  varieties  have  mostly 
dropped  from  the  lists  of  nurserymen.  All  this  is  as  much 
to  be  deplored  as  a  loss  of  standards  of  excellence  in 
literature  and  music,  for  it  is  an  expression  of  a  lack  of 
resources  and  a  failure  of  sensitiveness. 

In  practically  any  part  of  the  country,  a  small  collection 
of  fruits  can  be  grown  in  a  well-placed  plot.  In  fact,  to 


36  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

overcome  the  difficulties  of  soil  or  climate  is  one  of  the 
compensations  in  th'e  effort.  The  exchange  of  cions  and 
specimens  of  fruit  with  connoisseurs  and  collectors  is 
another  recompense.  A  person  with  a  few  acres  should  be 
able  to  supply  himself  with  choice  fruits  of  his  own  raising 
as  well  as  with  choice  flowers.  It  is  easily  possible  from 
an  outdoor  plantation  to  have  good  fruit  every  day  in  the 
year;  in  fact,  this  can  be  accomplished  with  apples  alone. 
The  raising  of  grapes,  peaches  and  other  fruits  under 
glass  may  add  greatly  to  the  interest,  if  one  is  so  inclined. 
In  the  home  fruit-plantation,  very  few  of  the  ordinary 
commercial  varieties  should  be  attempted.  Collections 
should  be  built  up  by  exchange,  representing  only  those 
kinds  that  grade  not  lower  than  nine  and  ten  in  a  decimal 
scale  of  quality.*  A  good  fruit-cellar  should  accompany 
it,  and  this  should  be  readily  provided  in  an  unheated 
basement  or  in  a  simple  separate  outdoor  construction. 

THE   GENERAL  PRACTICE  AND   THE   SPECIAL  PRACTICE 

The  standard  methods,  that  rest  on  broad  underlying 
principles,  are  general  practices.  They  are  the  essentials. 
The  intending  fruit-grower  should  grasp  these  practices 
at  the  outset. 

The  methods  that  meet  particular  local  or  personal 
conditions  or  modifications  are  the  special  practices.  They 
are  naturally  in  endless  dispute. 

The  clean  tilling  of  orchards  is  a  general  and  funda- 
mental practice;  the  sod-mulch  method  is  a  special 
practice,  and  it  must  be  proved  in  every  case.  The  grow- 

*For  lists  of  fruits  graded  on  a  decimal  scale  of  quality,  see  Repts.  Amer. 
Pomol.  Soc.,  1901  and  previous;  and  Repts.  Mich.  Hort.  Soc.,  1890  and  previous. 
For  lists  of  fruits,  see  Bull.  No.  151,  Bur.  PI.  Ind.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.  (1909). 


Special  Practices  37 

ing  of  standard  full-size  trees  is  the  general  practice;  the 
growing  of  dwarfs  is  the  special  practice  and  must  justify 
itself.  Leaving  the  roots  on  trees  when  they  are  trans- 
planted is  general  practice;  cutting  them  off  is  special 
practice,  and  it  may  work.  ,  , 

The  general  practice  is  always  the  norm.  It  is  not  to  be 
discarded  except  for  very  good  reasons.  The  burden  of 
proof  is  on  the  special  practitioner.  The  grower  may  save 
himself  much  confusion,  as  also  considerable  bad  and 
injudicious  labor,  if  he  keeps  these  distinctions  in  mind. 
He  should  read  every  article  and  analyze  every  lecture 
with  this  conscious  discrimination.  Much  needless  com- 
bat is  waged  over  special  practices. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  WC AT  ION,  AND  ITS  CLIMATE 

ALL  the  difference  between  failure  and  success  may 
turn  on  the  particular  location  or  site  in  which  the  fruit- 
plantation  is  placed;  and  yet  it  is  apparent  that  any 
advice  respecting  the  proper  place  for  engaging  in  fruit- 
growing must  be  of  the  most  general  nature,  since 
the  species  of  fruits  are  so  numerous,  and  the  elements 
that  enter  into  a  choice  of  location  and  soil  are  so 
various  and  indefinable.  That  is  to  say,  the  problem 
is  local. 

Yet  there  are  certain  considerations  of  general  appli- 
cation and  to  which  the  reader  may  profitably  give  heed. 
These  may  be  found  to  be  suggestive  in  improving  one's 
practice  in  his  established  plantation,  as  well  as  useful  in 
aiding  him  in  the  choice  of  location  and  land. 

The  intending  fruit-grower  will  usually  find  it  to  his 
advantage  to  locate  himself  among  fruit-growers.  In  a 
"fruit-region"  he  finds  conditions  adapted  to  the  growing 
of  the  product.  Such  a  region  attracts  buyers,  speakers, 
experimenters;  it  invites  association  and  discussion.  The 
constant  association  with  fruit-growers  quickens  inquiry, 
keeps  one  informed,  and  develops  the  fruit  mind. 

Regions  that  carry  a  reputation  for  fruits  not  only 
attract  buyers  and  sellers,  but  also  encourage  many  forms 
of  cooperation.  Buying  and  selling  exchanges,  shipping 
associations,  societies,  and  other  groups  are  likely  to  grow 
out  of  the  situation  and  to  be  very  useful  to  all  active 

(38) 


The  Location  and  the  Site  39 

growers.    The  educational  value  of  such  associations  is 
likely  to  be  beyond  calculation. 

THE   PLACE 

The  choice  of  the  place  in  which  to  grow  fruit,  leaving 
aside  the  element  of  soil,  is  determined  by  the  location 
and  the  site.  The  problems  comprised  in  the  selection  of 
the  proper  soil  must  be  determined  for  each  particular 
fruit.  They  are,  therefore,  special  questions,  and  must 
be  treated  in  books  devoted  to  the  different  fruits  and 
different  regions,  and  not  in  a  general  work  on  fruit- 
growing. 

The  location  is  the  position  of  the  place  as  fixed  by  the 
map  or  the  surveyor.  It  is  in  such  and  such  a  township, 
and  lies  along  such  and  such  a  highway.  It  is  a  question  of 
local  geography;  it  may  lie  in  any  one  of  a  thousand 
places  in  the  general  fruit-zones  that  were  outlined  in 
the  preceding  chapter. 

The  site  is  the  particular  or  actual  place,  in  the  location 
or  on  the  farm,  upon  which  the  plantation  is  set.  It 
comprises  the  aspect  as  to  whether  the  exposure  is  toward 
the  north  or  the  south,  and  the  consideration  of  the  minor 
elevations  and  other  topographical  features  of  the  place. 

To  proceed,  then,  from  the  general  to  the  specific,  we 
may  say  that  a  certain  fruit-plantation  is  located  at  X,  in 
the  state  X,  and  that  it  has  a  high  site,  with  a  sharp 
eastward  exposure. 

In  the  choice  of  a  location  with  reference  to  its  geo- 
graphical position,  there  are  two  chief  elements  to  be 
considered,  the  choice  with  reference  to  market  and  that 
with  reference  to  weather;  and  to  these  we  may  now 
proceed. 


40  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

Location  with  reference  to  market. 

Time  has  overcome  distance.  Market  facilities  are, 
therefore,  determined  more  by  transportation  facilities 
than  by  nearness  to  the  market  itself.  To  have  the  choice 
of  two  or  more  means  of  shipping — as  by  rail  or  water,  or 
by  more  than  one  railroad — is  a  most  desirable  feature  in 
the  location  of  any  fruit-farm.  This  is  not  only  because 
competitive  rates  may  be  secured,  but  also  because  more 
and  various  markets  may  be  reached.  The  choicer  the 
fruits  and  the  greater  the  desire  to  reach  personal  markets, 
the  more  should  the  grower  prize  any  means  that  will 
enable  him  to  reach  a  number  of  markets.  Such  a  grower 
will  desire  to  locate  within  easy  reach  of  a  number  of 
cities  or  large  towns.  He  will  not  care,  perhaps,  to  grow 
what  may  be  called  the  staple  varieties,  leaving  that  effort 
to  those  persons  who  are  farther  removed  from  points  of 
consumption.  It  would  seem  to  be  unwise,  therefore,  for 
the  fruit-grower  who  has  access  to  several  or  many  unlike 
markets  to  attempt  to  copy  the  methods  of  those  in  the 
West  or  South,  who  must  grow  largely  of  one  thing  and 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  command  concessions  from  trans- 
porters and  salesmen.  Fruit-growing  can  never  be  reduced 
to  a  dead-level  of  ideals  and  practice.  In  one  place  great 
specialization  may  be  most  profitable,  but  in  another 
place  generalization — the  extensive  growing  of  general- 
purpose  varieties — may  be  best. 

The  cost  of  haulage  to  the  shipping-point  or  to  the 
market  is  a  most  important  item,  and  one  that  is 
often  overlooked.  It  is  expensive  to  haul  peaches  or 
berries  5  to  10  miles,  particularly  if  the  roads  are 
indifferent.  This  cost  alone  may  forestall  any  profit  in 
the  enterprise. 


Temperature  and  Rain  41 

Location  with  reference  to  weather. 

In  the  preceding  chapter,  the  general  influence  of  cold 
and  heat  in  determining  the  fruit-zones  was  discussed. 
At  that  place,  the  subject  was  the  average  annual  tempera- 
ture. But  within  these  various  zones  there  are  endless 
minor  variations  in  physiographical  features  that  have 
a  direct  influence  in  determining  the  areas  of  the  incidental 
frosts  of  late  spring  and  early  fall.  Moreover,  the  exposure 
to  destructive  winds  is  to  be  considered,  and  in  some 
regions  the  liability  to  rains  at  blooming  time,  and  to 
drying  winds  when  the  fruit  is  maturing.  While  these 
dangers  are  beyond  the  control  of  man,  nevertheless  they 
may  be  avoided  to  some  extent;  and  we  are  beginning 
to  construct  charts  and  tables  of  average  local  weather 
so  that  the  grower  may  calculate  his  risks  in  advance. 
Herein  is  one  of  the  greatest  services  that  the  science  of 
meteorology  can  render  the  farmer. 

"The  average  daily  range  in  temperature,"  as  found  by 
Hedrick,  is  "an  important  constituent  of  blooming-time 
weather.  When  the  daily  range  is  highest  the  danger  to 
blossoms  is  greatest.  The  most  jeopardizing  weather  to  the 
fruit-crop,  from  the  standpoint  of  temperature,  consists 
of  warm,  sunny  days  followed  by  still,  cloudless,  cold 
nights.  The  danger  is  all  the  greater  in  such  stresses  of 
weather  because  the  heat  of  the  day  forces  out  the  blos- 
soms prematurely." 

Rain  at  blooming-time. — In  his  study  of  New  York 
conditions  for  the  years  1881  to  1905,  Hedrick  concludes 
that  "Rain  and  the  cold  and  wind  that  usually  accompany 
it  at  blossoming-time  cause  the  loss  of  more  fruit  than  any 
other  climatal  agencies.  The  damage  is  done  in  several 
ways.  The  most  obvious  injury  is  the  washing  of  the 
pollen  from  the  anthers.  The  secretion  on  the  stigmas  also 


42  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

is  often  washed  away  or  becomes  so  diluted  that  the  pollen 
does  not  germinate.  It  is  probable  that  the  chill  of  rainy 
weather  decreases  the  vitality  of  the  pollen  and  an  excess 
of  moisture  often  causes  pollen-grains  to  swell  and  burst. 
Rain  also  prevents  bees  and  insects  from  carrying  pollen. 

"A  temperature  low  enough  to  be  harmful  to  blossoms 
is  usually  associated  with  frost  or  rain ;  but  a  low  tempera- 
ture, even  though  it  does  not  touch  the  frost  point,  nor 
accompany  rain,  is  often  disastrous  to  the  setting  of  fruit. 
The  injurious  effect  is  probably  due  to  the  prevention  of 
the  growth  of  the  pollen-tubes." 

Wind. — The  effects  of  wind,  according  to  Hedrick, 
who  has  studied  the  question,  may  be  summarized  as 
follows:  " Winds  whip  blossoms  from  the  trees  and  prevent 
insects  from  working.  Long  continued,  warm,  dry  winds 
injure  blossoms  by  evaporating  the  secretion  from  the 
stigmas,  thereby  preventing  the  retention  and  germination 
of  pollen.  Damp,  warm  winds,  if  long  continued,  are 
unfavorable  to  pollination.  -A  cold,  dry,  north  wind  in 
blooming-time  chills  vegetation  and  stops  the  normal 
functions  of  flowers  and  leaves.  On  cold,  clear  nights, 
winds  keep  off  frosts  by  renewing  the  heat;  or  by  bringing 
fogs  or  clouds  from  lakes  or  ocean,  frosts  are  prevented 
on  the  leeward  side  of  the  water."  In  compiling  the  records 
of  weather  in  relation  to  the  setting  of  fruit  from  1881  to 
1905  in  New  York,  Hedrick  found  that  "wind  of  sufficient 
strength  to  damage  blossoms"  occurred  in  the  years  1881, 
1882,  1883,  and  1895,  thus  making  an  element  of  risk;  and, 
similar  risks  must  be  general. 

The  disasters  from  wind  often  occur  in  winter  when 
trees  are  laden  with  ice;  and  the  damage  to  ripe  or  matur- 
ing fruit  is  often  very  great.  Protection  from  high  winds, 
if  it  can  be  accomplished  without  interfering  with  the 


Effects  of  Winds  43 

usual  movement  of  air,  is  much  to  be  desired.  A  naturally 
protected  area  is  to  be  preferred;  but  in  default  of  this, 
windbreaks  may  be  planted,  as  subsequently  advised. 

There  are  the  most  various  and  contradictory  opinions 
amongst  fruit-growers  as  to  the  influence  of  winds  on  fruit- 
plantations.  It  is  commonly  admitted  that  high  or  rolling 
lands  are  best  suited  to  most  fruits,  and  many  growers  sup- 
pose that  the  reason  of  it  is  that  winds  there  find  free 
course.  The  truth  is,  however,  that  several  features  con- 
spire to  render  these  lands  congenial  to  fruits.  Some  of 
these  characteristics  are  the  following:  Good  atmospheric 
drainage;  the  avoidance  of  still  air  in  frosty  weather;  good 
water-drainage;  earliness  or  lateness,  according  as  they 
are  southward  or  northward  exposures.  High  or  strong 
winds  are  always  to  be  avoided,  if  possible. 

As  a  rule,  winds  are  beneficial  to  fruit-plantations  only 
when  they  bring  warmer  air,  or  when  they  keep  the  air 
in  motion  in  frosty  weather.  If,  therefore,  high  lands 
could  be  protected  from  winds  without  endangering 
atmospheric  drainage  or  exposing  the  plantation  to  frost, 
much  should  be  gained. 

In  dry  regions  there  is  a  special  reason  for  desiring  to 
abate  the  winds,  from  the  fact  that  they  subtract  so  much 
moisture  from  soil  and  plants.  Even  a  slight  obstruction 
in  the  path  of  the  wind  may  give  marked  results  in  the 
conservation  of  moisture.  On  this  point,  King  writes 
as  follows: 

"In  arid  or  semi-arid  countries,  and  in  districts  where 
the  soil  is  light  and  leachy,  but  especially  where  there 
are  large  tracts  of  land  whose -incoherent  soils  suffer  from 
the  drifting  action  of  winds,  it  is  important  that  the 
velocity  of  the  winds  near  the  ground  should  be  reduced 
to  the  minimum.  We  have  in  Wisconsin  extensive  areas 


44  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

of  light  lands  which  are  now  being  developed  for  pur- 
poses of  potato-culture;  but  while  these  lands  are  giving 
fair  yields  of  potatoes  of  good  quality,  they  are  in  many 
places  suffering  great  injury  from  the  destructive  effects 
of  winds.  On  these  lands,  wherever  broad,  open  fields  lie 
unprotected  by  windbreaks  of  any  sort,  the  clearing  west 
and  northwest  winds  after  storms  often  sweep  entirely 
away  crops  of  grain  after  they  are  4  inches  high,  uncovering 
the  roots  by  the  removal  of  from  1  to  3  inches  of  the  surface 
soil.  It  has  been  observed,  however,  that  such  slight  bar- 
riers as  fences  and  even  fields  of  grass  afford  a  marked 
protection  against  drifting  for  several  hundred  feet  to  the 
leeward  of  them." 

Low  temperature,  however,  is  the  greatest  danger  in  the 
weather  environment.  The  reader  must  clearly  distinguish 
between  frosts  and  freezes.  Frosts  occur  on  still,  clear 
nights,  and  are  more  or  less  local;  freezes  are  usually  accom- 
paniments of  storms,  often  of  high  winds,  and  are  general 
or  even  continental  in  range,  and  their  courses  are  not 
marked  by  the  whiteness  of  frost.  They  were  freezes,  and 
not  frosts,  that  swept  over  Florida  in  the  winter  of  1894-5, 
and  over  the  northeastern  states  in  May,  1895,  and  which 
have  made  much  havoc  in  recent  years  on  the  Pacific 
coast  and  other  regions;  and  most  of  the  serious  disasters 
of  untimely  cold  are  of  this  kind.  These  freezes  are  mostly 
beyond  the  reach  of  man.  Particular  men  may  protect 
themselves  by  means  of  fires,  but  in  the  main  the  grower 
can  only  move  beyond  their  limits.  But  injurious  frosts 
may  not  only  be  avoided,  in  many  cases,  by  the  choice 
of  the  location  or  even  of  the  site,  but  they  may  sometimes 
be  prevented  on  the  very  night  when  they  are  expected. 
(For  ways  and  means,  consult  Chap.  VII.)  Of  course,  we 
eliminate  from  this  discussion  all  consideration  of  regions 


Bodies  of  Water  45 

in  which  the  winter  temperature  is  too  low  for  the  grow- 
ing of  fruits. 

The  chief  local  determinant  of  immunity  from  frost 
(aside  from  latitude  and  altitude)  is  proximity  to  bodies 
of  water.  These  bodies  act  as  equalizers  of  temperature. 
The  water  holds  latent  heat,  and  it  does  not  respond 
quickly  to  atmospheric  fluctuations.  Therefore,  it  is 
cooler  in  summer  and  warmer  in  winter  than  the  adjacent 
land.  The  larger  and  deeper  the  body  of  water,  the  greater 
is  this  equalizing  effect  on  the  temperature  of  the  shores, 
other  things  being  equal.  As  between  the  two,  great 
depth  is  more  important  than  great  expanse  of  surface. 
Lakes  only  a  mile  or  two  wide  may  exert  a  very  profound 
influence  over  the  adjacent  land  if  they  are  very  deep. 
The  distance  to  which  the  protecting  influence  of  the 
water  may  extend  is  determined  very  largely  by  the  con- 
formation of  the  shore  lands.  As  a  rule,  there  are  distinct 
slopes  toward  the  water,  and  it  is  rare  that  the  effect  of 
the  water  on  the  temperature  extends  much  beyond  the 
crest  of  the  elevation.  When  the  elevation  is  300  feet  or 
more,  in  the  northeastern  states,  the  region  of  immunity 
from  frost  ordinarily  does  not  extend  more  than  two- 
thirds  of  the  distance  to  the  summit.  Along  the  central 
New  York  lakes,  when  the  slopes  are  steep,  the  area  of 
the  tender  fruits,  as  grapes,  does  not  reach  more  than 
]/2  mile  or  one  mile.  The  famous  Chautauqua  grape-belt 
is  confined  to  a  strip  about  2  to  3  miles  wide  lying  against 
Lake  Erie,  and  reaching  an  elevation  at  its  landward  mar- 
gin of  less  than  200  feet.  Along  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan,  the  peach  area  extends  from  1  or  2  miles  to  15 
or  20,  depending  on  the  conformation  of  the  surface;  Along 
the  lower  Hudson  River  the  area  of  the  tender  fruits  does 
not  depart,  as  a  rule,  more  than  a  mile  or  two  from  the 


46  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

stream.  In  very  gradual  slopes,  the  ameliorating  influence 
of  the  water  usually  extends  farther,  but  it  is  likely  to  be 
less  marked  than  on  the  lower  parts  of  abrupt  slopes.  In 
all  these  cases,  the  limit  of  the  boundary  of  the  area  is 
determined  largely  by  two  factors, — the  distance  from 
the  water,  and  the  elevation  above  it. 

Tarr,  after  studying  the  local  geography  of  the  Chau- 
tauqua  grape  country,  makes  the  following  observations 
on  the  ameliorating  influence  of  Lake  Erie,  and  the  remarks 
will  apply  to  most  other  bodies  of  water:  "The  lake  is  a 
great  modifier  of  climate.  In  the  spring,  by  reason  of  the 
low  temperature  of  its  waters,  it  holds  back  the  vegetation, 
and  this  tends  to  keep  it  behind  the  ordinary  frosts.  Its 
very  presence  checks  frosts  by  moderating  the  temperature 
of  the  neighboring  air.  In  the  summer,  the  water  tends  to 
cool  the  air  of  the  day  and  to  keep  the  nocturnal  tempera- 
ture fairly  high.  During  the  fall,  the  water  has  been 
warmed  by  the  summer  sun,  and  the  influence  of  this 
warm  body  of  water  lengthens  the  growing  season  and 
tends  to  keep  off  the  early  autumn  frosts.  There  are 
many  other  influences,  but  nothing  of  importance  can  be 
stated,  excepting  on  the  basis  of  a  careful  study  extending 
over  several  years.  The  lake  breeze  of  the  day  must 
moderate  the  daytime  temperature;  and  the  land  breeze 
of  the  night  may,  in  some  cases,  so  keep  the  air  in  motion 
as  to  prevent  frosts.  That  there  is  a  marked  influence  upon 
climate  as  a  result  of  the  peculiar  conditions  of  topography 
and  neighborhood  of  water,  is  evident  at  the  very  first. 
Sketch  maps  show  that  the  mean  annual  rainfall  is  greater 
on  the  escarpment  than  on  the  lake  plain,  and  that  the 
mean  annual  temperature  of  the  hills  is  lower  than  that 
near  the  lake/' 

The  particular  influence  exerted  by  the  water  over 


Bodies  of  Water  47 

frost-injury  in  spring  is  often  due  more  to  the  retardation 
of  the  period  of  bloom  than  to  the  actual  prevention  of 
frost,  although  its  influence  in  the  latter  direction  is 
important.  The  lands  adjacent  to  the  water  ordinarily 
warm  up  later  in  spring,  and  the  trees  are  not  likely, 
therefore,  to  swell  their  buds  until  danger  of  serious  frosts 
is  past.  The  extent  of  this  retardation  of  bloom  is  often 
as  great  as  ten  to  twenty  days  within  a  stretch  of  10  or  20 
miles  from  a  large  body  of  water. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  danger  from  frosts  is  greatest 
in  mild  climates,  in  which  "warm  spells"  are  likely  to 
occur  in  late  winter  or  early  spring.  In  the  central  and 
southern  states,  this  frost  injury  following  a  period  of 
warm  weather  is  commoner  than  true  winterkilling, 
whereas  in  the  northernmost  states  and  Canada  serious 
injury  to  the  trees  from  late  spring  frosts  is  comparatively 
infrequent.  In  the  northern  states,  also,  the  plant  usually 
goes  into -the  winter  in  a  perfectly  dormant  and  ripened 
condition,  and  is  thereby  able  to  withstand  great  cold.  It 
has  been  said  that  injury  from  cold  is  more  frequent  in  the 
Gulf  states  than  in  New  York. 

The  elevation  of  any  place  also  stands  in  close  relation 
to  frostiness.  Perfectly  flat  lands  are  nearly  always  frosty, 
because  there  is  no  atmospheric  drainage,  a  subject  to 
which  we  shall  soon  recur.  On  the  other  hand,  very  high 
lands  are  also  frosty,  because  the  air  is  drier  and  rarer 
and  therefore  allows  of  rapid  radiation  of  heat  from  the 
land;  and  they  are  exposed  to  cold,  unbroken  winds. 
The  local  altitude  to  which  the  fruit-lands  may  be  carried 
can  be  determined  only  by  actual  experiment ;  but  in  the 
North  the  best  elevations  for  the  tender  fruits  are  usually 
between  100  and  300  feet  above  the  local  rivers  or  lakes. 

While  it  is  extremely  important  that  the  location  for 


48  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

the  growing  of  tender  or  early-blooming  fruit  should  be 
chosen  with  reference  to  its  immunity  from  disastrous 
winter  temperatures  and  untimely  frosts,  it  should  also 
be  said  that  climate  is  often  held  responsible  for  failures 
that  are  chargeable  to  ignorance  or  neglect.  This  is 
particularly  well  illustrated  in  the  perishing  peach -grow- 
ing of  some  parts  of  the  North. 

The  date  of  last  "killing  frost,"  however,  may  mean 
little  to  the  grower  of  orchard  fruits,  for  fruit-buds  or 
even  expanding  flowers  are  not  destroyed  by  frosts  that 
kill  tender  plants  on  the  ground.  In  a  subsequent  dis- 
cussion (Chap.  VIII),  the  degree  of  cold  that  fruit-buds 
may  withstand  is  given  in  some  detail.  Growers  attribute 
to  frost  injuries  that  may  have  been  caused  by  cold  rains 
or  to  long-continued  cold  weather  at  blooming-time. 
Good  phenological  studies  need  to  be  made,  whereby 
there  shall  be  complete  correlation  of  weather  phenomena 
and  vegetation  phenomena. 

Frost  data  need  to  be  worked  out  for  every  state  and 
province,  for  the  risk  is  great  in  every  one  of  them.  The 
imminence  of  this  risk  enforces  the  importance  of  rein- 
forcing the  fruit  business  with  the  raising  of  other  crops 
and  products,  and  also  the  necessity  of  choosing  one's 
locality  carefully.  Frost  records  must  be  compiled,  to  exhibit 
the  average  last  killing  frost,  or  the  last  freeze,  in  spring, 
the  latest  date  of  such  freeze,  the  average  first  killing 
depression  in  autumn,  the  first  killing  temperature  that 
has  occurred  in  any  year,  and  the  length  of  the  crop  sea- 
son. (See  for  example,  Bull.  No.  5  of  the  U.  S.  Weather 
Bureau  on  "Frost  Data  of  the  United  States,"  1911.) 
We  shall  eventually  work  out  such  records  minutely  for 
small  regions,  for  the  farmer  will  find  the  information 
of  value  in  proportion  as  it  applies  to  his  farm. 

D 


Drainage  of  Cold  Air 


49 


Location  with  reference  to  weather. — Atmospheric  drainage. 

The  air  is  rarely,  if  ever,  perfectly  still.  This  is  well 
illustrated  in  the  vagaries  of  light  frosts,  which  touch  here 
and  there  where  the  air  is  the  stillest  or  the  radiation 
most  rapid.  This  is  particularly  true  in  the  growing 
months,  when  the  earth  becomes  very  warm  in  the  day 
and  loses  the  heat  rapidly  at  nightfall,  and  when,  also,  the 


FIG.  1.  Atmospheric  drainage.  Peach  buds  on  the  trees  in  region  of  X  are 
frequently  destroyed  by  late  frosts,  while  those  on  trees  in  region  of  O  are  not 
injured. 

sky  is  less  overcast  by  clouds  than  it  is  in  the  winter 
months. 

Much  of  this  unrecognizable  movement  of  the  air  is 
due  to  the  draining  off  or  settling  away  of  the  cold  air, 
which  is  densest  and  therefore  heaviest.  It  pours  down 
the  valleys  of  hilly  and  mountainous  countries,  and  as  its 
vapor  condenses  it  gives  rise  to  the  valley  fogs  and  clouds, 
It  lies  in  the  low  places,  and  there  may  cause  frost.  A 
person  riding  across  an  undulating  country  on  a  still  sum- 


50  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

mer  night  can  scarcely  fail  to  notice  the  chillier  air  of  the 
depressions.  This  escape  of  the  cold  air  is  the  secret  of 
much  of  the  success  of  fruit-growing  on  rolling  and  sloping 
land;  and  this  fact  explains  the  importance  of  giving 
great  attention  to  the  selection  of  the  site  and  aspect 
when  setting  a  plantation  of  the  tenderer  fruits.  Barden 
and  Eustace  (Mich.  Bull.  No.  63)  give  a  picture  (drawn 
in  Fig.  1),  of  a  peach-orchard  containing  a  pocket  in  the 


FIG.  2.  The  frosty  belt  on  a  hillside  below  a  wood. 

region  X  in  which  buds  are  frequently  destroyed  by  late 
frosts,  whereas  those  in  the  region  0  escape  uninjured. 

Features  of.  such  little  apparent  importance  as  not 
to  appeal  to  the  fruit-grower  often  exert  great  influence 
on  the  quiet  movements  of  air.  A  frequent  case  is  this: 
A  strawberry  field  is  on  a  gentle  slope,  and  on  the  upper 
side  is  a  wood.  In  time  of  frost,  the  only  injury  occurs  in 
a  belt  two  or  three  rods  wide  just  against  the  wood,  in  the 
very  place  where  the  greatest  immunity  was  expected. 
This  is  probably  because  the  slight  bodily  movement  of 
the  air  down  the  hillside  and  over  the  forest  strikes 
obliquely  downward  from  the  edge  of  the  wood-top,  and 
leaves  a  narrow  belt  of  dead  air  against  the  timber  (as  at 
A  in  Fig.  2). 

The  atmospheric  drainage  is  marked  only  in  still  air. 
Winds  mix  up  the  air,  and  bring  it  all  to  a  comparatively 
uniform  condition.  The  slightest  obstacles  may  sufficiently 
retard  the  movement  to  leave  their  impress  in  the  distribu- 


Atmospheric  Drainage  51 

tion  of  a  light  frost.  A  rail  fence,  a  stone  wall,  a  row  of 
bushes,  a  slight  elevation  of  land,  the  earth  thrown  out  of 
a  ditch, — all  of  these,  when  they  extend  across  a  slope, 
are  obstacles  to  drainage  of  cold  air.  In  some  cases,  there 
may  be  a  difference  of  10°  in  temperature  in  as  many  feet 
of  elevation.  A  dense  row  of  trees  standing  diagonally 
across  a  slope  may  convey  away  the  cold  air  that  settles 
down  against  it,  and  thereby  prevent  injury  to  plants  on 
the  lower  levels. 

The  range  of  elevation  through  which  atmospheric 
drainage  acts  beneficially  to  the  fruit-grower  is  limited. 
A  fall  of  a  few  feet  in  a  plantation  is  often  sufficient  for 
the  very  best  protection  from  light  frosts;  and  a  fall  of 
100  to  200  feet  on  a  farm  or  large  plantation  may  be 
regarded  as  the  general  maximum  throughout  which  the 
benefit  may  be  observed,  for  very  high  elevations  are,  as 
we  have  seen,  bleaker  and  colder  in  sum-temperature  than 
comparatively  low  ones.  What  may  be  gained  by  air- 
drainage  may  be  lost  by  coldness  of  elevation.  The  tem- 
perature decreases  by  1°  F.  for  each  300  feet  elevation,  and, 
according  to  Hann,  is  independent  of  latitude. 

"It  is  a  common  experience,"  writes  W.  M.  Wilson, 
"that  vegetation  at  the  surface  is  sometimes  killed  when 
the  temperature  of  the  air  4  feet  above  the  surface  remains 
above  freezing;  but  rarely  is  there  an  absence  of  frost  or 
of  injurious  temperature  when  the  air  temperature  4  feet 
above  the  surface  falls  to  32°.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
on  clear,  quiet  nights  when  frost  is  likely  to  occur,  the  air 
at  the  surface  is  nearly  always  colder  than  it  is  a  few  feet 
above  the  surface.  This  difference  may  amount  to  as 
much  as  10°,  or  even  15°,  in  as  many  feet,  but  usually  it 
is  much  less.  The  difference  is  greater  on  clear  nights 
than  on  cloudy  nights." 


52  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

THE    SITE   FOR   THE   FRUIT-PLANTATION 

The  grower  is  confined  to  his  general  region,  but  he 
may  have  much  choice  in  the  lay  of  the  land,  or  the  par- 
ticular site  of  his  plantation.  The  preceding  discussions 
will  enable  the  reader  to  approach  this  subject  reasonably. 

As  a  rule,  especially  in  northern  countries,  the  ideal 
site  for  a  fruit-plantation  is  somewhat  elevated  above 
adjoining  lands.  Such  a  site  presents  the  two  advan- 
tages of  atmospheric  and  soil-drainage.  Of  these  advan- 
tages, the  atmospheric  drainage  is  the  greater,  inasmuch 
as  soil-drainage  can  be  secured  by  artificial  means.  In 
speaking  of  elevated  lands,  it  is  not  necessarily  meant 
that  they  be  rolling.  Some  entire  farms  that  are  almost 
level  may  be  sufficiently  elevated  above  the  local  streams 
or  the  general  contour  of  a  flat  country  to  answer  all 
purposes  of  an  ideal  fruit  site. 

The  pronounced  minor  elevations  often  present  other 
advantages  of  temperature  than  those  incident  to  atmos- 
pheric drainage.  They  offer  various  exposures,  and  they 
may  be  utilized  as  windbreaks  by  placing  the  plantations 
on  the  slopes  opposite  the  severest  winds.  If  they  are 
near  large  bodies  of  water,  they  are  usually  more  pro- 
foundly influenced  by  such  bodies  than  flatter  lands, 
because  more  open  to  the  movements  of  air  from  them. 

Despite  all  these  remarks,  there  are  certain  cases  in 
which  comparatively  low  lands  are  preferable  for  fruit- 
raising,  but  this  is  because  such  lands  are  moister,  richer, 
leveler,  or  more  sheltered,  rather  than  because  they  are 
lower  than  surrounding  areas;  for  all  these  advantages 
may  sometimes  be  secured  on  comparatively  elevated 
lands,  and  atmospheric  drainage  be  secured  in  addition. 
Strawberries  are  grown  on  lower  lands  largely  because 


The  Exposure  53 

such  lands  are  moist  and  level.  Quinces  and  blackberries 
demand  a  moister  land  than  is  usually  found  on  pro- 
nounced slopes.  In  any  event,  however,  the  grower 
should  avoid  flat  lands  that  are  hemmed  in  on  all  sides 
by  elevations,  for  these  "pockets"  are  nearly  always 
frosty. 

The  aspect. 

The  aspect  or  exposure  of  a  fruit-plantation  is  deter- 
mined by  the  direction  and  extent  of  the  slope  of  the  land. 
The  exposure  exerts  great  influence  on  the  temperature 
of  the  soil  and  on  the  force  of  winds,  and  it  therefore 
becomes  an  emphatic  problem  in  the  location  of  a  fruit 
area,  especially  when  the  tender  and  early-blooming 
fruits  are  under  consideration.  There  is  the  greatest 
diversity  of  opinion  respecting  the  proper  exposure  for 
fruits,  some  growers  contending  that  the  northward  slope 
is  always  the  best,  and  others  preferring  a  southward 
exposure.  The  truth  is  that  no  one  exposure  is  best  in  all 
cases.  Much  depends  on  the  location  and  the  particular 
environment  of  the  plantation,  and  on  the  kind  of  fruit 
which  it  is  proposed  to  grow.  The  subject  may  be  analyzed 
by  discussing  it  under  five  generalizations: 

1.  In  locations  adjoining  bodies  of  water,  the  best 
slope  is  toward  the  water.  The  very  reason  for  the  location 
of  fruit-farms  in  such  places  is  that  the  ameliorating  effects 
of  the  water  may  be  secured,  and  these  effects  are  most 
marked  when  the  fruit-land  is  most  exposed  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  river  or  lake.  In  all  these  cases,  therefore,  the 
particular  direction  of  the  slope  in  respect  to  the  points  of 
the  compass  is  of  a  very  secondary  importance.  There  is 
often  great  choice  between  the  two  sides  of  the  river  or 
small  lake,  particularly  when  the  slopes  are  sharp  and 


54  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

high.  The  side  facing  away  from  strong  prevailing 
winds  is  usually  preferable,  particularly  if  the  elevation 
back  of  it  is  sufficient  to  act  as  a  windbreak. 

2.  In  interior  or  frosty  regions,  the  best  slope  for  the 
tender  and  early-blooming  fruits,  as  a  rule,  is  one  that 
retards  the  blooming  period,  thereby  causing  the  plant 
to  remain  comparatively  dormant  until  the  incidental 
spring  frosts  are  passed.    In  such  places,  therefore,  the 
northward    and   westward    slopes    are    commonly    most 
advisable;  although,  if  these  slopes  are  too  pronounced, 
they  may  be  so  very  cold  and  backward  that  what  is 
gained  by  the  retardation  in  spring  may  be  lost  by  the 
retardation  in  fall,  and  the  fruits  may  fail  to  ripen  properly, 
or  be  caught  by  early  fall  frosts.  In  wholly  interior  places, 
a  somewhat  pronounced  northward  exposure  is  usually 
preferable  for  peaches  and  apricots,  since  these  fruits  are 
likely  to  swell  their  buds  with  the  first  fitful  warmth  of 
spring. 

3.  In  regions  in  which  there  is  much  danger  of  sun- 
scald  on  the  trunk  and  larger  branches,  as  in  the  mid- 
continental  country  and  in  hot  arid  areas,  it  is  well  to 
avoid  pronounced  southwestern  exposures  if  possible;  or 
if  it  is  not  possible,  extra  precaution  should  be  exercised 
to  train  the  heads  of  the  trees  in  such  a  way  as  to  pro- 
vide the  requisite  shade. 

4.  If  one  desires  to  secure  particularly  early  results 
and  bright  colors  of  fruits,  a  warm  and  sunny  exposure, 
to  the  southward  or  southeastward,  is  most  advisable. 
This  is  a  matter  of  considerable  moment  with  the  finer 
dessert  varieties  of  fruits. 

5.  It  is  sometimes  necessary,  also,  to  study  the  expo- 
sure with  reference  to  prevailing  winds,  when  these  winds 
are  more  or  less  constant  and  strong.  The  selection  of  the 


Checking  the  Wind 


55 


aspect  may,  in  a  large  measure,  obviate  the  necessity  of 
establishing  elaborate  windbreaks.  The  contour  of  the 
land  should  always  be  carefully  considered  when  the 
planting  of  shelter-belts  is  under  advisement. 


FIG.  3.  The  protected  area,  A,  behind  a 
row  of  evergreens. 


WINDBREAKS   FOB   FRUIT-PLANTATIONS 

We  are  now  able  to  approach  the  troubled  subject  of 
windbreaks  in  a  rational  way.  Although  the  best  writers 
on  horticultural  topics  are  nearly  unanimous  in  recom- 
mending windbreaks 
for  fruit  -  plantations, 
there  is,  nevertheless, 
wide  difference  in 
opinion  and  practice 
among  good  cultiva- 
tors. Fruit  -  growers 
hold,  as  a  rule,  decided 
opinions  concerning 
windbreaks.  In  fact, 
they  usually  hold  ex- 
treme opinions,  either 
wholly  opposing 
shelter  -  belts  in  all 
cases,  or  strongly  ad- 
vocating them.  All  who  are  engaged  in  the  growing  of 
fruits  or  who  attend  fruit-growers'  gatherings,  have  heard 
the  most  positive  experiences  cited  in  support  of  both 
opinions.  There  must  be  good  reasons  for  these  opposing 
views.  There  appear  to  be  no  well-grounded  maxims  or 
precepts  among  growers  themselves,  and  statements  con- 
cerning the  merits  of  shelter-belts  are  commonly  vague. 

Of  course  there  is  no  dispute  as  to  the  marked  effect 


FIG.  4.  The  upward  deflection  of  winds  by  a 
high  lake  bank. 


56  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

of  breaks  in  deflecting  or  checking  strong  winds.  Even 
a  fence  may  have  a  marked  effect.  Persons  and  animals 
instinctively  seek  shelter.  Two  simple  illustrations  will 
suffice.  Fig.  3  shows  the  still  area  back  of  the  shelter- 
belt  which  stands  across  the  prevailing  winds.  Fig.  4 
is  a  diagram  of  the  effect  of  a  high  bank  on  the  Great 
Lakes.  The  strong  winds  strike  the  bank  and  are  deflected 
upward  and  reach  the  surface  at  some  distance  back, 
leaving  a  relatively  dead  area  at  A. 

Benefits. — An  epitome  of  the  benefits  derived  from 
windbreaks  as  reported  by  growers  of  fruit  may  be 
arranged  as  follows: 

1.  A  windbreak  may  protect  from  cold. 

2.  It  reduces  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  land,  tending 

to  mitigate  drought  in  summer  and  root-injury  in  winter. 

3.  Prevents  or  lessens  windfalls. 

4.  Lessens  breaking  of  trees  laden  with  fruit  or  ice. 

5.  Retains  snow  and    leaves,  thus  tending  to  prevent  deep 

freezing  and  excessive  evaporation. 

6.  Facilitates  labor  in  the  fruit-plantation. 

7.  Protects  blossoms  from  severe  winds. 

8.  Enables  trees  to  grow  straighter. 

9.  Reduces  injury  from  the  drying  of  small  fruits  on  the  plants. 

10.  Holds  the  sand  in  certain  places. 

11.  Sometimes  causes  fruits  to  ripen  earlier. 

12.  Encourages  birds. 

13.  It  may  be  made  an  ornament  to  the  property. 

Injuries  reported  from  windbreaks: 

1.  A  windbreak  may  render  a  plantation  colder  at  certain  times. 

2.  Fruit  immediately  adjoining  the  windbreak  is  liable  to  be  much 

injured  by  insects  and   diseases,  and    to  be  small   and 
inferior  in  color. 

3.  Trees  immediately  against  the  windbreak    are   often  less 

thrifty  than  others. 

4.  There   may  be  greater   damage  from  late  spring  frosts  in 

sheltered  plantations. 


Woods  57 

Forests  and  fruit-growing. — One  of  the  reasons  why 
fruit-growing  is  attended  with  increasing  difficulties  is 
because  the  forests  have  been  destroyed,  thereby  opening 
the  country  to  the  winds.  There  is  no  evidence  that  the 
extremes  of  temperature  or  fluctuations  in  annual  means 
have  become  larger  in  recent  years  from  the  effects  of 
forest-removal,  or  that  there  are  more  high  winds  now  than 
formerly,  but  it  is  true  that  winds  blow  over  the  farm 
with  greater  force.  Winds  sweep  the  surface  and  bear 
away  the  moisture  of  the  soil  at  the  same  time  that  they 
come  in  contact  with  the  trees  and  bushes  themselves, 
and  take  away  their  moisture.  The  chief  effect  of  the 
forest  is  to  check  the  force  of  winds  in  prescribed  areas. 
It  has  a  local  influence.  Aside  from  all  this,  if  forests  were 
retained  about  the  sources  of  creeks  and  on  springy 
hillsides,  a  more  continuous  supply  of  water  might  be 
secured  for  irrigation,  live-stock,  spraying  and  domestic 
uses.  It  is  worth  saying,  also,  that  a  country  dotted  here 
and  there  with  forest  areas  is  much  more  attractive  to 
every  person  who  loves  variety  of  landscape  and  nature. 

While  there  are  thus  many  advantages  to  fruit-growing 
of  small  forest  preserves,  there  are  also  disadvantages. 
In  certain  cases  they  may  become  the  harbors  and  breed- 
ing-places of  insect  or  fungous  invasions.  This  difficulty 
may  be  largely  avoided  by  cutting  out  those  trees  and 
bushes  that  breed  the  fruit-grower's  enemies.  The  wild 
cherries  are  much  loved  of  the  tent-caterpillars,  the  elm  of 
the  canker-worm,  and  wild  roses  and  their  kin  of  the  rose- 
chafer.  The  cedar-apple  fungus  thrives  on  the  red  cedar, 
and  is  thence  transported  to  the  quince  or  apple  orchard, 
and  a  form  of  it  affects  the  wild  thorn  trees.  The  red-rust 
flourishes  on  the  wild  blackberries,  dewberries  and  black 
raspberries,  and  the  strawberry  diseases  breed  in  the 


58  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

patches  of  wild  berries.  It  is  not  often,  however,  that  the 
forest  areas  become  a  very  serious  menace  to  fruit-growers. 

General  statement. — The  advantages  derived  from 
windbreaks  are  many,  positive,  and  they  appear  to  warrant 
the  strongest  recommendations  of  horticultural  writers. 
Yet  the  injuries  occasionally  sustained  in  consequence  of 
shelter-belts  may  be  serious,  for  it  is  well  attested  that 
trees  sometimes  suffer  from  cold  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  a  dense  windbreak  when  they  escape  injury  in  other 
places.  This  fact  is  easily  explained,  however.  The  influ- 
ence of  a  windbreak  on  the  temperatures  of  an  adjacent 
plantation  is  governed  by  its  position  with  reference  to 
prevailing  or  severe  winds.  Of  itself,  wind  probably  exerts 
little  or  no  influence  on  temperature.  It  acquires  the 
temperature  of  surfaces  over  which  it  passes.  If  these 
surfaces  are  colder  than  the  given  area,  cold  winds  are  the 
result,  or  if  warmer,  as  a  large  body  of  water,  the  winds  are 
warm.  But  wind  often  causes  great  injury  to  plants 
because  of  its  acceleration  of  evaporation;  and  winds  that 
are  no  colder  than  the  given  area,  if  comparatively  dry, 
may  consequently  do  great  damage  to  fruit-plantations. 
This  is  particularly  true  at  certain  times  in  the  winter 
season.  Land  winds,  being  cold  and  dry,  are  at  that  time 
likely  to  be  dangerous;  whereas  winds  that  traverse  large 
bodies  of  water,  and  are  therefore  comparatively  warm 
and  moist,  are  usually  hi  themselves  protectors  of  tender 
plants. 

The  advantage  or  disadvantage  of  the  windbreak, 
therefore,  depends  directly  on  the  configuration  or  topog- 
raphy of  the  particular  place,  and  the  problem  is  strictly 
local.  But  it  may  be  said  that  a  windbreak  is  desirable 
wherever  the  fruit-plantation  is  much  exposed  to  strong 
winds.  To  prevent  possible  injury  from  too  little  circu- 


FIG.  5.  A  Lombardy  poplar  break  protecting  a  peach  orchard  from  violent  winds 
on  the  shore  of  Lake  Michigan.   The  fruit  trees  are  too  near  the  break. 


(59) 


60  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

• 

lation  of  air  in  certain  localities,  particular  care  should  be 
exercised  in  the  construction  of  the  windbreak.  The  pre- 
vailing winds  are  the  ones  chiefly  to  be  avoided.  This  is 
particularly  important  hi  regions  in  which  these  winds 
are  normally  strong,  as  on  the  ocean  shore.  In  fact,  it  is 
usually  impossible  to  grow  successful  orchards  in  full 
exposure  to  the  ocean. 

How  to  make  the  windbreak. — From  a  general  study 
of  the  subject,  it  appears  that  in  interior  localities  dense 
plantings  are  commonly  advisable,  tight  hedges  often  being 
recommended.  This  is  because  the  winds,  coming  off  the 
land,  are  likely  to  make  the  plantation  colder.  In  localities 
influenced  by  bodies  of  water,  however,  it  is  apparently 
better  practice  to  plant  a  belt  only  for  the  purpose  of 
breaking  or  checking  the  force  of  the  warmer  winds,  still 
allowing  them  to  pass  in  their  course.  Such  a  belt  gives 
the  desired  shelter  to  trees  when  laden  with  fruit  and  ice, 
and  may  hold  the  snow,  while  danger  from  comparatively 
still  air  is  averted.  The  damage  from  still  air  is  usually 
observed  in  the  lee  of  natural  forests,  and  it  is  in  such 
places  that  injury  is  reported  by  correspondents.  The 
writer  has  found  no  indisputable  evidence  to  show  that 
such  injury  ever  accompanies  artificial  windbreaks;  places 
where  such  injury  was  reported  have  been  visited,  but  the 
loss  of  trees  and  fruit  was  plainly  due  to  age  of  trees  or 
other  obvious  reasons.  Still,  it  is  probable  that  a  hedge- 
like  windbreak  may  sometimes  be  the  cause  of  mischief; 
and  such  should  never  be  made  in  any  locality  until  the 
problems  of  local  atmospheric  drainage  have  been  well 
considered. 

The  coarser  evergreens,  planted  close  together,  are 
therefore  advisable  for  interior  places,  while  deciduous 
trees,  or  evergreens  somewhat  scattered,  are  often  better 


62  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

for  the  lake  regions.  In  these  latter  cases,  however,  the 
lay  of  the  land  is  important,  for  if  atmospheric  drainage 
is  good  there  is  less  danger  of  injury  from  tight  belts. 
Lower  levels,  upon  which  cold  air  settles,  are  more  in 
need  of  open  belts  than  higher  lands.  For  interior  places, 
a  strip  of  natural  forest  is  the  ideal  windbreak.  A 
Lombardy  poplar  windbreak  alongside  a  peach  orchard 
is  shown  in  Fig.  5.  In  artificial  belts,  the  kind  illus- 


FIG.  7.  Raspberry  plantation  protected  by  a  windbreak. 

trated  in  Fig.  6,  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  best. 
The  illustration  shows  two  rows  of  maples  backing  up  a 
row  of  Norway  spruce.  The  maples  then  receive  and 
break  the  force  of  the  wind,  and  prevent  the  spruces  from 
becoming  ragged.  Fig.  7  presents  a  good  raspberry 
plantation  protected  by  a  windbreak. 

The  gist  of  the  matter  is  to  choose  those  kinds  of  trees 
that  are  most  thrifty  and  healthy  in  the  particular  locality, 
and  that  are  least  infested  by  fungi  and  insects  common 
to  fruit-plants,  and  then  to  study  the  local  conditions 
carefully  to  determine  how  dense  or  how  open  the  shelter 


Windbreaks  63 

should  be.  For  California,  Wickson  recommends  species 
of  eucalyptus,  pepper  or  schinus,  Monterey  cypress, 
Monterey  pine,  osage  orange,  locust,  and  maples.  "Quite 
a  number  of  the  larger-growing  deciduous  fruit  trees,"  he 
continues,  "are  used  to  some  extent  along  the  exterior 
lines  of  orchards  for  the  protection  of  the  inclosure.  The 
fig,  the  walnut,  the  chestnut,  seedling  almonds,  and  apricots 
are  especially  commended  for  such  use." 

In  Florida  it  is  a  common  practice  to  leave  strips  of  the 
original  forest  to  serve  as  shelter-belts.  If  this  forest  is 
hammock  land,  and  therefore  well  clothed  underneath, 
the  protection  of  a  belt  2  to  4  rods  wide  will  b  most 
complete.  The  cabbage  palmetto  is  often  allowed  to  stand 
promiscuously  through  the  orange  plantation,  partly  to 
serve  as  a  protection  from  winds,  partly  for  shade  and 
ornament.  In  exposed  places,  orange  groves  are  sometimes 
protected  by  very  tall  open  fences. 

The  break  should  not  be  planted  so  close  to  the  rows 
of  fruit  as  to  deprive  them  of  light,  food  and  moisture.  It 
should  never  be  dense  enough  to  force  the  buds  on  fruit 
trees  in  those  localities  subject  to  late  spring  frosts,  as  it 
may  sometimes  do  when  it  faces  the  south  and  acts  like 
a  southern  exposure  for  the  plantation.  Payne  makes  the 
following  observation  (Colo.  Exp.  Sta.)  on  windbreaks 
in  a  given  dry-land  orchard:  "Trees  used  for  windbreaks 
for  orchards  under  dry-farming  conditions  are  expensive 
unless  the  trees  of  the  windbreak  group  are  planted  far 
enough  from  the  fruit  trees  so  that  the  roots  of  the  wind- 
break group  will  not  compete  with  the  fruit  trees  for 
moisture.  The  root-development  of  the  Russian  mulberry 
and  black  locust  found  at  the  Plains  Substation  indicate 
that  the  windbreak  group  should  be  planted  100  feet 
from  the  fruit  trees." 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  TILLAGE  OF  FRUIT-LANDS 

THE  study  of  the  development  of  the  ideas  associated 
with  the  tillage  of  the  land  opens  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing chapters  in  history.  The  subject  is  all  the  more 
suggestive  because  tillage  is  such  a  commonplace  and 
almost  universal  labor  that  no  one  thinks  of  it  as  having 
had  a  history.  Yet  the  practice  of  the  simple  stirring  of 
the  soil  has  been  slowly  evolved,  like  all  other  methods 
and  institutions,  through  a  long  period  and  as  the  result 
of  many  forces  that  were  unobserved  or  even  unknown 
at  the  time. 

We  think  of  tillage  as  a  custom;  and  if  one  considers 
the  condition  of  farming  at  the  present  moment,  he  would 
seem  to  be  warranted  in  such  an  association,  for  a  custom 
is  a  habit  that  is  not  suggested  by  reason  and  inquiry. 
Perhaps  the  only  reason  that  most  persons  could  give  for 
the  tillage  of  the  land  is  that  they  are  obliged  to  practice 
it.  It  would  seem  to  be  the  simplest  and  dullest  thing  to 
till  the  land.  It  is  merely  the  driving  of  the  animal  and 
the  holding  of  the  plow,  or  taking  care  that  the  harrow 
scarifies  the  entire  surface;  or  it  may  be  only  the  stubborn 
wielding  of  the  hoe  or  rake.  This  view  of  the  matter  is 
wholly  correct  when  one  thinks  of  tillage  only  as  labor. 
The  work  must  be  done  because,  somehow,  plants  thrive 
best  when  it  is  done;  but  the  sooner  it  is  done  and  the  less 
there  is  of  it  the  easier,  and  what  is  the  easier  is  the  better. 

It  was,  no  doubt,  some  such  mind  as  this  that  domi- 
(64) 


The  Early  Tillage  65 

nated  the  rude  farmers  in  the  early  history  of  the  race. 
Throughout  all  the  years  until  now — and,  unfortunately, 
too  often  even  now — tillage  has  been  a  mere  necessity 
forced  upon  the  husbandman  by  a  most  ungenerous 
Nature.  The  first  tillage  probably  arose  from  necessity  of 
breaking  the  earth  to  get  the  seed  into  it;  and  the  second 
step  was  the  digging  out  of  other  plants  that  interfered 
with  its  growth.  In  many  cases,  still  another  hardship  was 
imposed,  for  the  earth  must  be  disturbed  to  get  the  crop 
out  of  it.  These  three  necessities  served  to  keep  the  surface 
of  tamed  lands  in  a  greater  or  less  state  of  agitation  until 
it  finally  came  to  be  seen  that  there  is  something  in  the 
practice  which  causes  plants  to  thrive  wholly  aside  from 
the  lessening  of  the  conflict  with  weeds.  But  it  is  only  in 
the  last  century  or  two  that  there  appears  to  have  been 
any  serious  attempt  to  discover  why  this  age-long  practice 
of  stirring  the  earth  is  such  a  decided  benefit  to  plants. 
One  reason  why  the  art  of  tillage  has  made  such  slow 
progress  is  because  it  seems  to  be  contrary  to  the  order  of 
nature.  In  recent  years  it  has  been  proclaimed  that  the 
proper  treatment  of  an  orchard  is  to  plant  it  thick  and 
to  allow  the  leaves  and  litter  to  cover  the  ground,  wholly 
omitting  the  stirring  of  the  soil,  for  this  is  the  method  of 
the  forest;  and  forest  lands  increase  in  fertility  from  year 
to  year  and  the  moisture  is  held  in  them  as  in  a  sponge. 
The  reasoning  is  plausible  but  not  exact.  There  are  two 
ways  of  testing  it, — by  experience  and  by  reflection.  It 
needs  only  to  be  suggested  that  the  experiment  has  been 
tried,  and  is  now  trying,  upon  an  extended  scale,  as  a 
large  part  of  the  apple  orchards  of  the  country  testify. 
The  chief  beneficiaries  of  the  experiment  are  the  bugs, 
mice  and  fungi,  all  of  which  would  vote  the  method  a 
success.  The  reasons  why  the  forest  method  is  successful 
E 


66  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

for  the  forest  are  because  the  trees  stand  so  thickly  that 
the  earth  is  protected  from  the  drying  effect  of  sun 
and  winds,  the  forest  cover  is  so  extensive  as  to  produce 
a  climat9  of  its  own,  all  the  product  is  returned  to  the 
soil,  and  there  is  no  haste.  In  every  one  of  these  essentials 
the  orchard  is  unlike  the  forest.  Those  writers  who  urge 
that  the  orchard  be  planted  thick  enough  to  imitate  the 
forest  condition  should  also  make  it  clear  how  the  insects 
and  fungi  are  to  be  kept  at  bay,  or  how  acceptable  fruit 
can  be  secured  on  trees  that  are  unpruned,  unthinned  and 
untamed.  The  objects  to  be  attained  in  the  forest  and  in 
the  orchard  are  wholly  unlike.  In  one  case  it  is  the  per- 
petuation of  the  species,  and  there  results  a  severe  conflict 
for  existence,  in  which  more  plants  die  than  reach  ma- 
turity; in  the  other  it  is  the  securing  of  an  abnormal  prod- 
uct of  the  plant, — a  product  that  can  be  held  to  its 
abnormal  or  artificial  development  only  by  abnormal  con- 
ditions,— and  the  struggle  for  existence  is  reduced  to  its 
lowest  terms,  for  it  is  desired  that  not  a  single  plant  be 
lost.  Because  it  is  impossible  to  imitate  the  forest 
conditions,  the  forest  methods  cannot  be  followed  in 
fruit-plantations. 

Now  that  we  have  come  to  understand  why  and  how 
it  is  that  the  stirring  of  the  surface  earth  makes  plants 
thrive,  the  old-time  drudgery  of  tillage  becomes  the  most 
important,  the  most  suggestive,  and  therefore  the  most 
difficult  properly  to  understand  and  perform  of  all  farming 
operations.  If  we  cannot  have  the  protection  of  the  forest 
cover  and  the  forest  mulch,  we  must  make  a  mulch  for 
the  occasion;  and  if  we  wait  impatiently  for  results,  we 
must  unlock  the  granaries  of  the  soil  more  rapidly  than 
Nature  does.  We  must  till  for  tillage's  sake,  and  not  wait 
to  be  forced  into  the  operation — as  men  have  generally 


The  Neglected  Orchards  67 

been  forced — by  the  weeds;  yet,  whilst  we  have  outgrown 
the  need  of  weeds,  we  should  not  despise  them,  but  remem- 
ber them  kindly  for  the  good  they  have  done  the  race. 
They  have  been  an  inexorable  priesthood,  holding  us  to 
duty  whilst  we  did  not  know  what  duty  was,  and  they 
stand  ready  still  to  extend  their  holy  offices. 

The  case  of  the  early  apple  plantings. 

Orchard  trees  are  capable  of  sending  their  roots  so  far 
and  deep  into  the  soil  in  search  of  food  and  moisture  that 
they  are  able  to  live  and  grow  under  the  most  indifferent 
treatment  of  the  surface  soil.  This  fact  has  obscured  the 
importance  of  tillage  and  fertilizing,  so  much  so  that  there 
is  a  widespread  opinion  that  orchards  thrive  and  bear 
quite  as  well  in  sod  as  in  tilled  land.  The  greater  part  of 
the  few  apple  and  pear  orchards  that  are  kept  in  good 
tilth  were  put  under  such  treatment  only  after  the  trees 
had  attained  some  age  and  all  the  ill  effects  of  early  neglect 
had  become  established.  Even  those  orchards  that  have 
been  tilled  from  the  first  may  have  been  quite  as  im- 
properly managed  as  those  that  are  left  to  sod.  There- 
fore, there  is  no  undisputed  body  of  popular  experience 
touching  the  value  of  thorough  tillage  of  apple  orchard 
lands;  but  there  are  abundant  experiences  with  the  tillage 
of  peach  and  plum  orchards,  and  other  fruit-plantations, 
which  show  unequivocally  that  such  treatment  is  essential 
to  the  largest  results.  It  is  a  significant  observation  that 
those  fruits  from  which  the  farmer  expects  the  greatest 
profits — as  the  stone-fruits — are  the  ones  that  everywhere 
receive  the  best  care;  whereas  the  apple,  from  which iess 
is  expected,  commonly  receives  no  attention  until  all  other 
crops  have  been  served.  The  apple-grower  has  cheapened 
his  efforts  by  conceiving  of  a  low  estimate  of  value. 


68  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

Aside  from  these  related  experiences,  the  theoretical 
considerations  in  favor  of  tillage  are  so  clear  and  forcible 
that  they  amount  to  a  demonstration  of  the  superiority 
of  tillage  over  sod  or  grain  for  apple  orchards. 

My  older  readers  will  recall  that  until  recent  years  the 
effort  of  farmers  has  been  directed  to  the  growing  of  hay, 
grain  and  live-stock.  Previous  to  this  generation,  the  grow- 
ing of  fruit  had  been  a  matter  of  secondary  or  even  inci- 
dental importance.  A  bit  of  rocky  or  waste  land,  or  an 
odd  corner  about  the  buildings,  was  usually  given  over  to 
the  apple  orchard,  and  if  the  trees  received  any  attention 
whatever  it  was  after  all  other  demands  of  the  farm  had 
been  satisfied.  The  apple  and  standard  pear  orchards 
of  the  country  still  record  the  old  method.  It  has  required 
at  least  a  generation  of  men  in  which  completely  to  estab- 
lish any  new  agricultural  system,  and  the  time  is  not  yet 
fully  arrived  for  the  passing  out  of  the  old  orchards  and 
the  coming  in  of  the  new.  In  other  fruits  than  apples  and 
standard  pears,  the  generations  of  trees  are  comparatively 
short-lived,  and  those  fruits  sooner  feel  the  effect  of  new 
agricultural  teaching.  Vineyards,  and  orchards  of  plums, 
dwarf  pears,  apricots,  cherries,  and  quinces,  have  mostly 
come  into  existence  along  with  the  transition  movement 
from  the  old  to  the  new  farming,  and  they  have  been 
planted  seriously,  with  the  expectation  of  profit,  the  same 
as  have  the  grain  crops.  Peaches  had  passed  out  hi  most 
parts  of  the  East,  and  they  came  in  again  with  the  new 
agriculture.  At  the  present  time,  men  buy  farms  for  the 
sole  purpose  of  raising  fruit,  a  venture  which  would 
have  been  a  novelty  fifty  years  ago;  but  the  habit  of  imi- 
tation is  so  strong  that  the  apple-planter  patterns  after  the 
old  orchards  that  were  grown  under  another  and  now  a 
declining  system  of  agriculture,  and  many  of  which  are 


Sod  vs.  Tillage  69 

still  standing  on  the  old  farms.  The  apple  orchard,  there- 
fore, on  the  one  hand,  and  the  well-tilled  vineyard  on  the 
other,  are  the  object-lessons  illustrating  the  faults  of  non- 
tillage  and  the  gains  of  good  tillage.  The  apple  country  is 
no  longer  coextensive  with  the  sod  country,  and  new 
methods  must  prevail. 

Sod  orchards. 

It  is  not  to  be  inferred  from  the  foregoing  remarks  that 
orchards  in  sod  are  necessarily  failures,  or  even  that  they 
must  be  unsatisfactory.  There  are  notable  examples  to 
the  contrary;  but  they  are  special  cases,  and  the  success 
is  probably  in  spite  of  the  sod  rather  than  because  of  it. 
They  are  cases  in  which  the  land  is  specially  good  or 
retentive  of  moisture,  in  which  the  other  care  is  painstak- 
ing, and  mostly  in  which  the  grass  is  not  mown  for  hay. 
In  some  cases,  the  grass  is  cut  and  spread  under  the  trees; 
this  is  the  so-called  "sod-mulch"  method.  It  probably 
will  be  found  that  most  very  successful  sod  orchards  are 
in  regions  of  heavy  rainfall  or  of  light  evaporation,  or 
that  there  are  local  underground  supplies  of  moisture. 

Tests  on  apples  by  the  New  York  (Geneva)  Experi- 
ment Station  show  in  favor  of  tillage  over  sod  in  yield, 
larger  fruit,  longer -keeping  fruit,  better  quality, 
uniformity  of  trees  and  crops,  greater  growth  of  trees, 
better  foliage,  less  dead  wood  in  the  tree-tops,  deeper 
rooting,  a  better  supply  in  the  soil  of  humus  and  nitrogen. 
The  fruit  in  the  sod-mulched  plat  was  much  more  highly 
colored  than  in  the  tilled  plat  and  matured  one  to  three 
weeks  earlier.  At  the  end  of  a  ten-year  test,  Hedrick 
concludes  as  follows: 

"Grass  militates  against  apples  growing  in  sod  in 
several  ways  which  act  together,  as:  (1)  Lowering  the 


70  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

water-supply,  (2)  decreasing  some  elements  in  the  food- 
supply,  (3)  reducing  the  amount  of  humus,  (4)  lowering 
the  temperature  of  the  soil,  (5)  diminishing  the  supply  of 
air,  (6)  affecting  deleteriously  the  beneficial  micro-flora, 
(7)  forming  a  toxic  compound  that  affects  the  trees. 

"General  statements  are:  Sod  is  less  harmful  in  deep 
than  in  shallow  soils;  there  is  nothing  in  this  experiment 
to  show  that  apples  ever  become  adapted  to  grass;  sod 
may  occasionally  be  used  in  making  more  fruitful  an 
orchard  growing  too  luxuriantly;  other  fruits  than  the 
apple  are  probably  harmed  quite  as  much  or  more  by  sod; 
the  effects  of  grass  occur  regardless  of  variety,  age  of  tree, 
or  cultural  treatment,  and  are  felt  whether  the  trees  are  on 
dwarf  or  standard  stocks;  because  of  their  shallow  root- 
systems,  dwarf  trees  are  even  more  liable  to  injury  from 
grass  than  standards;  hogs,  sheep  or  cattle  pastured  on' 
sodded  orchards  do  not  overcome  the  bad  effects  of  the 
grass;  owners  of  sodded  orchards  often  do  not  discover  the 
evil  effects  of  the  grass  because  they  have  no  tilled  trees 
with  which  to  make  comparisons;  it  is  only  under  highest 
tillage  that  apple  trees  succeed  in  nurseries,  and  all  the 
evidence  shows  that  they  do  not  behave  differently  when 
transplanted;  grass  left  as  a  mulch  in  an  orchard  is  bad 
enough ;  grass  without  the  mulch  is  all  but  fatal — it  makes 
the  trees  sterile  and  paralyzes  their  growth,  and  it  is  the 
chief  cause  of  unprofitable  orchards  hi  New  York." 

In  New  Hampshire,  Gourley  reports  (Bull.  No.  168) 
that  "The  five-year  average  shows  all  methods  of  treat- 
ment to  be  superior  to  growing  trees  in  sod  as  regards 
yield  and  size  of  fruit,  and  growth  of  tree.  Cultivation 
annually  every  two  weeks  until  September  1  has  given 
results  on  yield  and  growth  superior  to  cultivation  every 
other  year,  including  a  cover-crop  the  alternate  years  of 


Sod  vs.  Tillage  71 

cultivation.  A  good  system  of  culture,  namely,  cultiva- 
ting the  orchard  every  two  weeks  until  midsummer,  then 
seeding  down  with  crimson  clover,  has  given  practically 
as  good  results  on  yield  of  fruit  and  growth  of  tree  as  that 
obtained  by  the  addition  of  a  complete  fertilizer  or  when 
either  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  or  nitrogen  are  used  in 
excess  in  the  complete  fertilizer." 

The  experiments  of  Picket  in  New  Hampshire  on  the 
formation  of  fruit-buds  by  different  methods  of  soil- 
treatment  (Bull.  No.  153)  give  comparable  results  as  the 
consequence  of  three  years'  test.  Some  of  the  deduc- 
tions are  that  "thorough  cultivation  throughout  the  season 
from  May  15  to  September  1,  without  the  addition  of 
cover-crop  or  fertilizer,  resulted  in  the  production  of  three 
times  as  many  blossoms  (fruit-buds)  and  somewhat  more 
than  three  times  as  much  fruit  as  no  cultivation  (sod). 
Clean  cultivation  throughout  the  season  produced  con- 
siderably fewer  fruit-buds  and  a  noticeably  smaller  crop 
of  fruit  than  cultivation  till  July  10,  with  a  cover-crop  of 
crimson  clover  sown  with  the  last  cultivation  and  plowed 
under  the  following  spring.  The  results  indicate  that  clean 
cultivation  till  July  10,  followed  by  a  cover-crop  of  crimson 
clover,  alternating  every  other  year  with  a  stand  of  mixed 
clover  and  grass  sown  early  in  the  spring,  may  produce  a 
sufficient  number  of  fruit-buds  for  a  satisfactory  crop. 
This  cannot  be  conclusively  shown  till  the  experiments 
have  progressed  at  least  one  more  season.  Cultivation 
and  cover-crop  one  year  in  three  produced  only  two-thirds 
as  many  fruit-buds  and  one-half  as  many  apples  as  cultiva- 
tion two  years  in  three.  Cultivation  and  cover-crop  one 
year  in  three  doubled  the  production  of  fruit-buds  and 
increased  the  crop  of  apples  three  times  compared  with 
no  cultivation  at  all.  Cultivation  and  cover-crop  two  years 


72  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

in  three  gave  almost  as  good  results  as  cultivation  and 
cover-crop  yearly." 

These  results  of  experiments  are  confirmed  by  the 
extensive  apple-orchard  surveys  made  by  Warren  in  New 
York,  in  which  the  actual  experiences  of  growers  are 
tabulated  and  compared. 

Allowable  use  of  sod. 

Notwithstanding  these  authoritative  findings,  sod  may 
hold  a  very  important  part  in  the  present  management  of 
an  orchard  of  apples  or  pears.  In  many  cases,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  secure  the  time  and  labor  to  keep  all  the  orchards 
in  a  state  of  good  tilth,  and  it  may  be  better  to  till  one  part 
thoroughly  and  then  seed  it  down  for  a  short  time  than 
to  try  to  till  the  whole  area  indifferently.  This  is  partic- 
ularly true  in  clay  lands,  in  which  the  period  of  useful 
plowing  in  the  spring  is  very  short.  In  this  way,  one  may 
practise  a  rotation  of  tillage  in  different  parts  of  the  plan- 
tation; but  care  must  be  taken  that  no  part  remains  in  sod 
so  long  that  the  trees  become  weakened  or  injured.  In 
other  cases,  it  is  necessary  to  hold  the  orchard  in  sod 
to  prevent  serious  washing  on  steep  slopes.  In  hillside 
orchards,  strips  of  sod  may  be  left  across  the  slope  alter- 
nating with  tilled  areas,  and  the  areas  may  rotate  from 
year  to  year.  Some  orchard  areas  are  so  steep  or  so  stony 
(Fig.  8)  that  tillage  is  impossible;  in  this  case,  the  stones 
provide  the  surface  mulch. 

The  results  with  sod  depend  largely  on  the  other 
treatment  that  the  orchard  receives.  The  trees  should  have 
at  least  as  good  care  in  pruning,  grubbing,  spraying,  and 
otherwise  as  they  receive  in  tilled  lands.  The  grass  should 
not  be  cut  for  hay;  it  may  be  mown  and  allowed  to  lie  as 
a  mulch;  or  the  area  may  be  pastured  with  hogs  or  sheep. 


Sod  in  Orchards  73 

If  no  animals  are  pastured,  the  orchard  may  need  liberal 
fertilizing.  The  general  color,  vigor  and  productiveness 
of  the  trees  afford  a  good  index  of  the  effect  of  the  sod. 

The  sod-mulch  method,  or  any  acceptable  sod  treat- 
ment, must  not  be  confused  with  weeds  and  neglect.  If 
the  sod  is  employed  at  all,  it  should  be  good  sod,  which 
means  that  it  must  be  fertilized  or  top-dressed,  bad  weeds 
kept  out,  and  bare  or  thin  spots  re-seeded. 


Where  tillage  is  impossible. — An  old  orchard  that  in  its  day  has  borne 
well  among  the  rocks. 

Sod  lands  are  not  only  drier  than  cultivated  ground, 
but  they  are  favorite  breeding-places  of  insects.  Borers 
are  particularly  bad  in  grass  land.  No  stone-fruits  should 
ever  be  allowed  to  stand  in  sod,  and  the  same  may  be  said 
of  dwarf  pears.  Very  thrifty  young  apple  and  pear 
orchards  may  sometimes  be  thrown  into  bearing  by  seed- 
ing them  down  for  a  time,  but  the  sod  should  be  broken 
up  before  the  trees  become  checked  in  vigor. 

The  whole  question  as  to  whether  sod  is  hurtful  or 
beneficial  to  an  orchard  is  a  local  question.  The  grower 
must  determine  it  for  himself.  If  the  orchard  is  in  sod  and 


74 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


is  not  doing  well,  the  best  advice  in  general  is  to  plow  and 
till  it.  Certainly  it  is  better  to  make  tillage  the  rule  and 
sod  the  exception  than  to  start  with  the  intention  of  grow- 
ing an  orchard  in  grass  and  cultivating  it  only  when  forced 


FIG.  9.  A  well-kept  strawberry  plantation.  Good  tillage  and  mulch. 

to  do  so.  It  is  better  to  pasture  an  orchard  than  to  allow 
the  grass  to  grow  at  will,  but  close  pasturing  can  by  no 
means  take  the  place  of  tillage  and  fertilizing.  If  a  person 
wants  to  raise  hay  or  grain,  it  is  cheapest  to  grow  it  where 
there  are  no  trees  to  bother.  If  he  wants  to  grow  apples 
or  grapes,  he  would  better  choose  some  other  place  than  a 
meadow  or  grainfield.  The  use  of  clover  and  other  tem- 
porary cover-crops  as  a  means  of  fertilizing  the  land  is 
quite  another  matter,  and  is  discussed  in  the  next  chapter. 
Growers  are  always  asking  whether  the  apple  orchard 
shall  be  plowed  up.  If  the  grower  of  apples  is  satisfied 
with  the  crops  and  growth  of  the  trees,  let  the  orchards 
alone;  but  if  it  is  thought  that  better  crops  are  desirable, 


The  Reasons  Why  75 

do  not  hesitate  to  make  an  effort  to  secure  them.  If  it  is  a 
question  of  varieties,  it  may  be  worth  while  to  top-graft 
the  trees.  If  the  roots  are  too  near  the  surface  to  allow  of 
plowing,  harrow  the  land  thoroughly  when  the  turf  is  soft 
in  spring,  and  continue  to  work  it  in  the  growing  season. 
If  this  is  not  feasible,  then  pasture  it  closely  with  sheep  or 
hogs,  feeding  the  stock  at  the  same  time.  If  all  this  cannot 
be  done,  and  the  orchard  is  unprofitable,  cut  it  down. 

THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  TILLAGE 

Tillage  may  be  defined  as  the  stirring  of  the  soil  for 
the  direct  purpose  of  making  plants  thrive.  Its  immediate 
effect  is  to  ameliorate  and  modify  the  soil  itself,  but  its 
secondary  effects  are  those  desired  and  which  are  also 
intimately  concerned  in  the  welfare  of  the  plant.  For  ex- 
ample, tillage  is  capable  of  lessening  the  capillarity  of  the 
surface  soil,  and  from  this  there  may  result  a  saving  of 
moisture  from  evaporation,  and  it  is  the  moisture  that  is 
sought.  For  practical  purposes,  however,  it  is  unnecessary 


FIG.  10.  Good  tillage  and  good  care. — Loganberries  in  Oregon. 


76  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

to  keep  this  distinction  in  mind,  and  we  may  classify  the 
benefits  of  tillage  under  four  general  heads,  arranging 
them  approximately  in  their  order  of  importance  to  the 
fruit-grower: 

1.  Tillage  improves  the  physical  condition  or  structure  of  the 

land, 

(a)  By  fining  or  comminuting  the  soil,  and  thereby  pre- 
senting greater  feeding-surface  to  the  roots; 

(6)  By  increasing  the  depth  of  the  soil,  and  thereby  giving 
a  greater  foraging  and  root-hold  area  to  the  plant; 

(c)  By  warming  and  drying  the  soil  in  spring; 

(d)  By  reducing  extremes  of  temperature  and  moisture; 

(e)  By  supplying  air  to  the  roots. 

2.  Tillage  may  save  moisture, 

(/)  By  increasing  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil; 

(0)  By  checking  evaporation. 

3.  Tillage  may  augment  chemical  activities, 

(h)  By  aiding  in  setting  free  plant-food; 

(1)  By  promoting  nitrification; 

(j)  By  hastening  the  decomposition  of  organic  matter; 
(&)  By  extending  these  agencies  (h,  i,  j,)  to  greater  depths 
of  the  soil. 

4.  Tillage  indirectly  protects  the  fruit-plantation, 

(I)    By  destroying  weeds; 

(m)  By  destroying  insects  and  breaking  up  their  breed- 
ing-places; 

(n)  By  tending  to  reduce  plant  diseases,  in  the  removal 
of  host-plants,  burying  of  affected  leaves  and 
fruits,  and  the  like; 

(o)  By  aiding  in  the  keeping  down  of  mice,  rabbits  and 
other  pests. 

The  simple  statements  of  these  offices  of  tillage  is 
sufficient  for  the  present  occasion,  except,  perhaps,  in 
respect  to  the  improving  of  the  structure  of  the  soil  and  the 
conservation  of  the  moisture,  for  if  the  cultivator  is  skilled 
in  these  latter  matters,  all  the  other  benefits  will  follow. 


Condition  of  the  Soil 


77 


The  methods  of  tillage  are  of  course  endlessly  variable. 
The  novice  should  inspect  the  methods  of  good  growers. 
The  pictures  accompanying  this  Chapter  (Figs.  9-15) 
show  what  results  have  been  secured  by  successful  men. 

The  structure  of  the  soil. 

The  structure  or  physical  state  of  the  soil  is  com- 
monly more  important  than  its  mere  richness  in  plant- 


Fio.  11.  The  tillage  strip  in  a  vineyard. 

food.  That  is,  the  productivity  of  the  land  is  not  deter- 
mined wholly,  and  perhaps  not  even  chiefly,  by  the  amount 
of  fertilizing  elements  it  contains.  This  is  particularly  true 
of  all  lands — like  the  clays — that  tend  to  become  and  to 
remain  hard  and  unpleasant  if  left  to  themselves.  Plant- 
food  is  of  no  consequence  unless  the  plant  can  use  it.  The 
hardest  rocks  may  contain  various  plant-foods  in  abundance, 
and  yet  plants  cannot  grow  on  them.  A  stick  of  wood  con- 


78 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


tains  potassium  and  phosphorus  and  nitrogen,  and  yet 
nothing  grows  upon  it  until  it  begins  to  decay.  A  hundred 
pounds  of  potash  in  a  stone-hard  lump  is  worth  less  to  a 
given  plant  than  an  ounce  in  a  state  of  fine  division.  Soils 
that  the  chemists  may  pronounce  rich  in  plant-foods 
may  grow  poor  crops.  In  other  words,  a  chemist  cannot 
tell  what  a  soil  will  produce;  he  can  tell  only  what  it 
contains. 


FIG.  12.  A  fruit-plantation  in  New  Mexico,  'under  tillage. 

Every  good  farmer  knows  that  a  hard  and  lumpy  soil 
will  not  grow  good  crops,  no  matter  how  much  plant^food 
it  may  contain.  A  clay  soil  that  has  been  producing  good 
crops  for  any  number  of  years  may  be  so  seriously  injured 
by  one  injudicious  plowing  in  a  wet  time  as  to  ruin  it  for 
the  growing  of  heavy  crops  for  two  or  three  years.  The 
injury  lies  in  the  modification  of  its  physical  structure, 
not  in  the  lessening  of  its  natural  fertility.  A  sandy  soil 
may  also  be  seriously  impaired  for  the  growing  of  any  crop 


Fertilizers  on  Lumpy  Lands 


79 


if  the  humus,  or  decaying  organic  matter,  is  allowed  to 
wear  out  of  it.  It  then  becomes  leachy,  it  quickly  loses  its 
moisture,  and  is  excessively  hot  in  bright,  sunny  weather. 
Similar  remarks  may  be  appled  to  all  soils,  although  they 
are  not  equally  true  of  all. 


FIG.  13.  A  well-tilled  orchard  in  New  York. 

If  these  remarks  are  true,  then  it  follows  that  it  is  use- 
less to  apply  commercial  fertilizers  to  lands  not  in  proper 
physicial  condition  for  the  best  growth  of  crops.  If 
potash,  for  example,  were  applied  to  hard  lumps  of  clay, 
it  could  not  be  expected  to  aid  much  in  the  growth  of 
plants,  because  plants  cannot  grow  on  such  a  place.  If  the 
same  quantity  were  applied  to  mellow  soil,  however,  the 
greater  part  of  it  would  be  presented  to  the  roots  of  plants 
at  once,  and  its  effects  would  no  doubt  be  apparent  in  the 
season's  crop.  The  improvement  of  the  structure  of  the 
soil  is  not  only  a  means  of  presenting  the  plant-foods  to 
the  roots  and  of  uniformly  distributing  what  fertilizer  may 


80  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

be  applied,  but  it  is  also  a  direct  means  of  conserving 
moisture  and  of  hastening  chemical  activities. 

The  soil  is  a  vast  storehouse  of  plant-food,  and  the  first 
effort  of  the  husbandman  should  be  to  make  this  store 
available  to  plants.  In  "An  Essay  for  Advancement  of 
Husbandry-Learning,"  published  in  1651  in  London, 
Samuel  Hartlib  wrote :  "Men  take  him  for  a  foole  or  a  mad 


FIG.  14.  Clean  tillage  in  a  Michigan  peach  orchard. 

man  that,  having  store  of  wealth  in  his  trunck,  doth  yet 
complain  of  want.  What  though  the  key  be  rusty  for  want 
of  use?  'tis  easier  to  get  that  scoured,  then  to  obtaine 
such  another  treasure.  And  surely  I  may  upon  most  sure 
grounds  say,  that  our  Native  Countrey,  hath  in  its  bowels 
an  (even  almost)  infinite,  and  inexhaustible  treasure;  much 
of  which  hath  long  laine  hid,  and  is  but  new  begun  to  be 
discovered.  It  may  seem  a  large  boast  or  meer  Hyperbole 
to  say,  we  enjoy  not,  know  not,  use  not,  the  one-tenth 
part  of  that  plenty  or  wealth  &  happinesse,  that  our 


The  Dry  Spell  81 

Earth  can,  and  (Ingenuity  and  Industry  well  encouraged) 
will  (by  Gods  blessing)  yield." 

The  moisture  of  the  soil. 

Lands  oftener  need  moisture  in  the  growing  season 
than  they  need  fertilizers.  They  usually  need  both,  if  the 
largest  and  best  crops  are  to  be  secured.  Drought  seems 
to  most  persons  to  be  one  of  those  calamities  in  which 


FIG.  15.  The  use  of  the  disc-harrow  with  a  spike-tooth  follower. 

there  are  no  secondary  or  incidental  blessings,  and  it  must 
be  confessed  that  the  lesson  of  the  recurring  droughts  has 
not  yet  been  learned  by  the  great  body  of  farmers.  The 
one  remedy  that  occurs  to  most  persons  is  irrigation,  and 
yet  there  is  sufficient  rainfall  in  most  parts  of  the  older 
fruit-growing  regions  to  provide  all  the  needs  of  large 
crops.  The  difficulties  are  that  this  rainfall  comes  when 
it  seems  not  to  be  wanted,  and  very  much  of  it  is  allowed 
to  escape  by  evaporation.  The  truth  is,  however,  that 
the  heavy  rainfall  usually  comes  at  the  best  season, 
F 


82  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

for  it  is  the  period  of  inactivity,  when  the  work  of  the 
farmer  and  the  growth  of  the  plants  are  least  interfered 
with.  If  farmers  in  the  East  and  South  were  certain  that 
there  would  be  no  rain  from  June  till  September,  they 
would  carefully  husband  the  rainfall  of  the  earlier  months, 
and  would  suffer  little  loss;  but  when  they  expect  rain  all 
summer,  they  neglect  the  saving  of  the  early  precipitation, 
and  gamble  on  the  chance  of  having  a  rain  when  they  need 
it.  It  often  happens  that  the  dry  countries  suffer  least 
for  water. 

The  water  is  to  be  saved  by  holding  it  in  the  earth.  If 
the  earth  is  finely  divided  and  yet  compact,  the  numberless 
pores  or  interstices  will  hold  great  quantities  of  water. 
If,  then,  the  interstices  next  the  atmosphere  are  broken 
up  so  that  capillarity  is  reduced,  the  water  is  prevented 
from  passing  off  by  evaporation.  The  whole  process  of 
the  saving  of  moisture,  therefore,  falls  into  two  means:  the 
catching  and  holding  of  it  (or  the  making  of  a  reservoir), 
and  the  preventing  of  evaporation.  It  is,  therefore,  a 
question  of  plowing  and  then  of  surface-tilling.  It  will  thus 
be  seen  how  futile  it  may  be  to  try  to  save  the  water  by 
beginning  tillage  late  in  the  season,  when  a  drought  is 
threatened.  If  the  land  has  not  been  well  prepared,  there 
may  be  no  water  to  save  by  that  time.  It  may  either  have 
run  through  the  land  into  the  drains,  or  it  may  have 
evaporated  long  before  the  farmer  saw  the  need  of  saving  it. 

The  hardpan  may  be  so  near  the  surface  that  little 
water  can  get  into  the  land;  the  soil  is  shallow,  and  the 
early  rains  make  mud-puddles  or  pass  off  over  the  sur- 
face. In  such  lands  deep  plowing  is  necessary,  to  break 
up  the  hardpan  and  to  increase  the  storage-capacity. 
Breaking  up  the  hardpan  by  means  of  dynamite  blasting- 
may  make  a  useful  preparation  for  fruit-lands.  If  the 


The  Moisture  Reservoir  83 

land  is  open  and  leachy,  shallow  plowing  may  be  neces- 
sary, else  the  soil  may  be  loosened  too  much.  The  water- 
storage  capacity  of  most  soils  may  be  increased  by  put- 
ting vegetable  matter  into  them.  It  will  thus  be  seen 
that  the  methods  of  conserving  or  saving  moisture  must 
be  worked  out — or  rather  thought  out — by  each  farmer 
for  his  own  farm. 

The  water  of  rains  and  snows  is  held  on  the.  surf  ace  for 
the  time,  and  allowed  to  percolate  into  the  soil,  if  the  land 
is  rough  and  open  from  recent  plowing,  if  there  is  a  cover  of 
herbage,  or  if  the  surface  is  soft  and  mellow.  Fall-plowing 
may  be  advisable  to  catch  the  water  of  the  inactive  season, 
and  also  to  expose  hard  soils  to  weathering;  and  it  may 
facilitate  the  work  of  spring.  But  clay  lands  with  little 
humus  may  puddle  or  cement  if  fall-plowed,  and  particu- 
larly if  harrowed  and  fitted  in  the  fall;  and  in  the  South 
all  rolling  lands  are  exposed  to  serious  gullying  by  fall- 
plowing.  In  general,  it  is  not  advisable  to  plow  fruit-plan- 
tations in  the  fall,  however,  not  only  because  it  may  too 
greatly  expose  the  roots  to  the  weather,  but  because  it 
prevents  the  ameliorating  of  such  lands  by  the  use  of 
some  incidental  or  catch-crop  sown  after  the  summer  till- 
ing is  past.  The  winter  covering  is  efficient  in  holding 
the  precipitated  water,  and  the  other  advantages  of  it 
are  invaluable  (as  explained  in  Chapter  IV). 

Any  body  or  substance  interposed  between  the  air  and 
the  moist  soil  will  prevent  the  evaporation  of  the  moisture 
in  that  soil.  The  ground  is  moist  underneath  a  board,  a 
layer  of  sawdust  or  ashes;  and  so  it  may  be  underneath  a 
layer  of  2  or  3  inches  of  dry  earth.  It  is  expensive  and 
difficult  to  haul  this  dry  earth  to  the  land,  and,  moreover, 
it  soon  becomes  hard  and  dense,  and  is  no  longer  a  mulch. 
It  is  better  to  make  the  mulch  on  the  spot  by  shallow  til- 


84  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

lage,  and  to  repair  the  mulch  as  soon  as  it  becomes  hard 
and  crusted.  The  orchardist,  therefore,  will  till  as  often 
as  the  land  needs  it,  however  frequent  that  may  be;  but 
as  a  general  statement  it  may  be  said  that  fruit-lands 
ought  to  be  tilled  every  ten  days  and  soon  after  every  rain. 

USE    OF   THE   VARIOUS   TOOLS   IN   RELATION   TO   MOISTURE- 
SAVING   (adapted  from  L.  A.  Clinton) 

Many  special  tillage  tools  have  been  designed  for  fruit- 
grounds  practice.  The  primary  office  of  these  tools  is  to 
provide  the  soil  reservoir,  to  comminute  the  surface,  to 
keep  down  the  weeds;  and  all  this  has  important  relations 
to  moisture.  Figs.  16  and  17  show  some  useful  forms  of 
tools. 

Plowing  to  save  moisture. 

The  first  step  in  the  saving  of  moisture  must  be  the 
preparation  of  the  land  so  that  the  rain  will  sink  down,  and 
not  be  carried  off  by  surface  drainage.  In  many  regions, 
especially  in  the  southern  states,  the  great  handicap  to 
agriculture  is  the  surface-washing  of  the  land.  Owing  to 
shallow  plowing  and  shallow  tillage,  the  water  is  unable  to 
settle  into  the  hard  soil  with  sufficient  rapidity,  and  is 
carried  along  the  surface,  producing  the  destructive  gullies. 

The  improvements  in  the  plow  have  done  much  toward 
remedying  these  defects,  but  there  is  still  much  ignorance 
as  to  the  proper  use  of  this  implement.  As  a  tool  to  be  used 
in  the  preparation  of  the  land  for  the  reception  of  moisture, 
it  stands  preeminent.  Good  plowing  does  not  consist — as 
ordinarily  supposed — in  merely  inverting  a  strip  of  earth, 
but  in  pulverizing  and  fining  it  and  burying  the  sod  or 
refuse  that  may  be  on  the  surface.  The  quantity  of  water 


The  Plow  and  the  Harrow  85 

that  a  soil  is  capable  of  holding  depends  directly  on  the 
fineness  of  its  particles.  Then  that  plow  which  will  break 
and  pulverize  the  soil  most  thoroughly  is  the  one  best 
adapted  to  fit  the  soil  for  holding  moisture.  This  point  is 
well  illustrated  by  King,  who  says:  "Since  each  indepen- 
dent soil-grain  of  a  moist  soil  is  more  or  less  completely 
surrounded  by  a  film  of  water,  it  is  evident  that,  other 
conditions  being  present,  the  largest  aggregate  surface 
area  may  retain  the  most  water  per  cubic  foot.  Now,  a 
cubic  foot  of  marbles  1  inch  in  diameter  possesses  an 
aggregate  surface  of  27.7  square  feet,  while  if  the  marbles 
were  reduced  in  diameter  to  one-thousandth  of  an  inch, 
then  the  total  area  per  cubic  foot  is  increased  to  37,700 
square  feet."  From  this  it  is  evident  that  the  total  quantity 
of  water  capable  of  being  absorbed  by  a  soil  that  is  cloddy 
and  lumpy  is  very  slight  in  comparison  with  the  quantity 
when  the  soil  is  in  a  finely  divided  state;  and  not  only  is  its 
absorbing  power  less,  but  its  power  of  holding  moisture  is 
also  greatly  reduced. 

Harrowing  to  save  moisture. 

The  harrow,  besides  pulverizing  and  fining  the  soil  for 
the  seed-bed,  is  most  efficient  in  making  an  earth-mulch. 
The  spring-tooth  harrow  is  in  reality  a  cultivator.  When 
used  as  an  instrument  to  conserve  moisture,  the  teeth 
should  penetrate  to  the  depth  of  about  3  inches,  and  to 
produce  the  best  effect  the  ridges  left  by  it  should  be 
leveled  off  by  a  smoother,  which  can  now  be  purchased  as 
an  attachment  to  the  harrow.  The  tillage  of  orchards  by 
the  harrow  is  now  practised  extensively,  and  nothing  short 
of  irrigation  will  so  nearly  meet  the  demands  of  trees  for 
moisture,  particularly  in  the  heavier  soils. 

The  Acme  harrow  is  a  most  excellent  implement  on 


FIG.  16.  Various  tools  adapted  to  tilling  of  fruit-plantatipns.  (1)  Robert's 
form  of  an  ideal  plow;  (2)  vineyard  and  garden  plow;  (3)  swivel  plow;  (4,  5) 
subsoil  plows;  (6,  8)  spike-tooth  cultivators;  (7)  gang-plow;  (9)  spring-tooth  cul- 
tivator with  side-guards;  (10)  an  orchard  gang-plow. 


(86) 


FIG.  17.  Tools  adapted  to  surface-tilling  of  fruit-lands.  (1)  disc-harrow;  (2) 
spike-tooth  harrow;  (3)  Acme  harrow;  (4)  spring-tooth  harrow  with  side  frames; 
(5)  riding  cultivator;  (6)  spring-tooth  harrow;  (7,  8)  grape-hoes.  In  8,  the  handle 
a  serves  as  a  rudder  or  guide. 

(87) 


88  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

lands  that  are  comparatively  free  from  stones  and  rubbish. 
The  plow-like  action  of  its  blades  serves  to  pulverize  the 
soil,  to  spread  the  mulch  evenly,  and  it  leaves  a  most 
excellent  seed-bed. 

The  cutaway  or  disc-harrows  may  be  either  beneficial 
or  positively  injurious.  If  the  discs  are  so  set  that  they 
cover  but  a  part  of  the  surface  with  the  mulch,  they  leave 
a  ridge  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  wind  and  sun,  and  the 
rate  of  evaporation  is  greatly  increased.  The  discs  should 
be  set  at  such  an  angle  that  the  whole  surface  shall  be 
stirred  or  covered.  Their  chief  value  lies  in  the  cutting 
and  pulverizing  action  on  clay  soils,  but  as  conservers  of 
moisture  they  are  inferior  to  the  Acme  or  the  spring- 
tooth.  Soils  that  need  the  disc-harrow  to  pulverize  them 
should  usually  be  gone  over  again  with  some  shallower 
tool. 

The  mellower  the  soil,  the  lighter  should  be  the  work 
done  by  the  harrow.  On  most  heavy  orchard  soils,  it  will 
be  found  necessary  to  use  the  heavy  tools,  like  the  spring- 
tooth  and  disc-harrows,  in  the  spring,  but  if  the  land  is 
properly  handled  it  should  be  in  such  condition  as  to 
allow  the  use  of  a  spike-tooth  or  smoothing-harrow  in 
summer.  This  light  summer  harrowing  should  be  sufficient 
to  keep  down  the  weeds,  and  it  preserves  the  soil-mulch  in 
most  excellent  condition.  With  such  a  tool  and  on  land 
in  good  tilth,  a  man  can  harrow  10  or  more  acres  a  day. 

Cultivators  and  moisture-saving. 

The  action  of  cultivators  is  not  materially  different 
from  that  of  the  spring-tooth  harrow.  The  size  of  the  teeth 
should  be  regulated  by  the  work  to  be  performed,  an  imple- 
ment with  many  small  teeth  being  preferable  to  one  with 
a  few  large  teeth  when  the  object  is  to  conserve  moisture. 


Cultivators  and  Rollers  89 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  a  dry  time  the  less  surface 
exposed  the  less  will  be  the  evaporation.  If  a  large-toothed 
implement  is  used  to  destroy  grass  and  weeds,  then  it 
should  be  followed  by  a  smoother  to  reduce  the  ridges 
and  prevent  loss  of  moisture. 

Ridge  culture  is  allowable  only  when  the  object  is  to 
relieve  the  soil  of  moisture  on  bottom  lands  where  the 
water  comes  very  near  the  surface,  or  for  some  special 
crops  with  which  a  high  degree  of  warmth  is  required 
early  in  the  season;  but  even  then  the  ridges  should  be 
slight.  Nothing  could  be  better  calculated  to  dry  out  a 
potato-field  or  a  corn-field  than  throwing  the  ground  up 
on  high  ridges,  leaving  a  large  surface  exposed  to  the 
action  of  sun  and  wind.  In  fruit-plantations  in  a  proper 
state  of  tillage,  unless  very  heavy  clay,  a  small-toothed 
or  even  spike-toothed  cultivator  will  be  found  sufficient 
to  maintain  the  surface  mulch. 

The  roller,  in  its  relation  to  soil-moisture. 

The  roller  is  an  implement  whose  value  depends  largely 
on  special  conditions.  There  is  no  tool  that  requires  more 
judgment  as  to  proper  use.  On  light,  loose,  sandy  or 
gravelly  soils,  where  every  effort  must  be  made  to  solidify 
and  pack  the  particles  closely  together,  the  roller  may  be 
used  repeatedly.  The  difficulty  with  such  soils  is  that  the 
spaces  between  the  grains  are  so  large  that  the  water  is 
permitted  to  pass  through  freely,  and  is  lost  by  percola- 
tion. The  capillary  openings  are  so  large  that  there  is 
very  feeble  rise  of  the  water  to  take  the  place  of  that  used 
by  plants  and  lost  by  evaporation.  The  roller  lessens  the 
size  of  these  pores  in  solidifying  the  soil,  and  the  capillary 
force  is  then  strong  enough  to  draw  the  water  to  the  sur- 
face. If,  now,  the  soil  is  left  in  this  condition,  it  has  been 


90  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

put  in  the  best  possible  form  for  parting  with  its  moist- 
ure into  the  atmosphere,  unless  prevented  by  a  surface 
mulch.  In  seeding  land  in  a  dry  time,  the  soil  should  be 
rolled  in  order  to  bring  sufficient  moisture  to  the  seeds  to 
insure  germination. 

When  circumstances  will  permit,  the  roller  should  be 
followed  by  a  smoothihg-harrow,  that  the  surface  mulch 
may  be  restored  and  the  moisture  stopped  before  reaching 
the  atmosphere.  On  clay  lands,  the  roller  must  be  used  with 
much  caution.  If  used  immediately  after  grain  is  sown  and 
if  a  heavy  rain  follows,  there  is  danger  of  the  soil  becoming 
so  compact  on  the  surface  that  the  tender  shoots  are  unable 
to  get  through,  and  the  most  direct  connection  is  estab- 
lished between  the  soil-moisture  and  the  air.  A  good 

method  of  treat- 
ment for  clay  is  to 
roll  before  the  seed 
is  sown,  then  har- 
row and  make  a 
good  seed-bed,  and 

FIG.  18.  One  form  of  planker  or  float.  then      ^      ^     the 

grain.  After  the  plants  are  well  up,  the  roller  may  be 
used  again,  which  will  bring  the  water  to  the  surface,  where 
the  growing  plants  can  make  use  of  it  before  it  passes 
off  by  evaporation. 

Various  kinds  of  plankers  or  floats  may  be  used  in  the 
place  of  the  roller  to  smooth  and  compact  recently  tilled 
lands.  A  good  tool  of  this  kind  is  shown  in  Fig.  18.  "To 
make  this  cheap  and  easily-made  adjunct  to  good  culti- 
vation, take  two  hardwood  planks,  2x8  inches  and  7 
feet  long,  and  notch  them  as  in  the  cut,  boring  a  hole  at 
the  upper  end  to  hitch  to;  the  notches  should  be  8  inches 
apart  and  2  inches  deep;  now  nail  cross-planks  on  the  two 


Soil-preparation  91 

notched  bed-pieces,  using  the  same-sized  pieces,  2x8  and 
6  or  7  feet  long;  let  the  cross-planks  project  1  foot  at  each 
end  over  the  bed-pieces.  If  more  weight  is  needed  to  fine 
the  clay  lumps,  the  driver  can  ride  the  float,  or  weights 
can  be  placed  on  it." 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR   THE   TILLING   OF   FKUIT-LANDS 

The  foregoing  discussions  should  now  be  put  into 
practice.  The  standards  of  excellence  should  be  well  under- 
stood and  be  constantly  in  mind,  even  though  it  is  not 
possible  always  to  apply  them  as  completely  as  one  would 
desire. 

Preparation  of  the  land. 

Lands  that  enjoy  perfect  natural  drainage  are  particu- 
larly desirable  for  fruit-growing,  because  they  are  not  only 
warm  and  give  up  their  fertility  easily,  but  because  they 
also  allow  of  very  early  tillage,  which  is  an  important 
requisite  in  the  management  of  fruits.  If  this  perfect 
natural  drainage  does  not  exist,  tile-drainage  should  be 
employed  until  the  land  is  brought  into  the  best  possible 
condition.  Many  hard  and  wet  soils  make  excellent  pear 
and  plum  lands  when  thoroughly  tile-drained.  It  is  a 
common  opinion  that  only  flat  lands  need  draining,  but 
there  are  rolling  lands  in  which  the  subsoil  is  high  and  hard 
and  holds  the  water  like  a  dishpan.  Hillsides  are  often 
springy  and  boggy,  needing  careful  attention  in  under- 
draining.  Judicious  draining  not  only  carries  off  the 
superfluous  water,  but  it  also  loosens  the  subsoil  and  allows 
it  to  retain  its  moisture  better  in  times  of  drought.  An 
attempt  should  be  made  to  bring  the  land  in  the  various 
parts  of  the  orchard  into  conditions  as  uniform  as  possible, 


92  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

so  that  the  same  tillage  and  treatment  may  be  applied 
to  the  entire  area.  All  hard  and  "sour"  spots  should 
receive  particular  care  in  drainage  and  subjugation,  or 
they  should  be  left  outside  the  plantation. 

Lands  with  hard  and  impervious  subsoils  should  be 
plowed  very  deep  before  trees  are  put  on  them;  and  in 
some  cases,  as  for  dwarf  pears,  it  may  pay  well  to  use  the 
subsoil  plow.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that 
the  subsoil  plow  is  not  always  a  fundamental  corrective  of 
hard  subsoils,  for  it  does  not  remove  the  cause.  The  sub- 
soil may  gradually  settle  back  into  its  old  condition,  and 
land  cannot  be  completely  subsoiled  after  it  is  planted  to 
trees.  In  the  case  of  strawberries,  raspberries,  and  other 
short-rotation  fruits,  the  subsoil  plow  may  be  used  at 
frequent  intervals;  but  in  lands  to  be  planted  to  orchards, 
the  tile  drain  is  a  more  perfect  ameliorator  of  the  subsoil 
than  is  the  subsoil  plow.  Yet  even  the  one  subsoiling  may 
serve  a  useful  purpose  in  sending  the  roots  downward  at 
the  start,  and  this  advantage  will  be  the  greater  when 
the  superfluous  water  removes  itself  rapidly  from  the 
hardpan.  Good  tile  underdraining  may  modify  the  hard- 
pan. 

The  land  should  always  be  in  a  thorough  state  of 
tillage  at  the  time  the  trees  are  planted;  that  is, 
whether  in  sod  or  in  hoed  crops,  the  land  should  be  in 
good  "heart"  and  physical  condition,  fertile,  and  free 
from  both  very  hard  and  very  wet  places  and  pernicious 
weeds.  There  are  exceptions  to  this  in  the  case  of  certain 
rocky  or  steep  lands  on  which  it  is  desired  to  set  apples; 
but  for  all  orchards  planted  directly  for  commercial  results, 
this  advice  has  few,  if  any,  modifications.  It  is  usually 
best  to  put  the  land  into  tilled  crops  the  season  before  the 
trees  are  set,  as  potatoes  or  corn;  although  sod  land,  if 


Preparation  of  Land  93 

well  fitted  and  naturally  in  good  heart,  often  gives  excellent 
results  when  turned  over  and  set  at  once  to  orchards.  Yet 
most  soils  need  the  previous  tillage  to  bring  them  into  a 
mellow  and  uniform  condition.  Many  of  the  "bad  places" 
in  orchards,  where  trees  die  out  the  first  two  or  three  years, 
could  have  been  discovered  and  corrected  if  the  land  had 
been  devoted  to  one  or  several  tilled  crops.  Lands  look 
more  uniform  when  in  sod  than  when  cultivated,  and  the 
farmer  may  be  led  to  overestimate  their  value  for  orchard 
purposes.  It  may  also  be  said  that  the  familiarity  with  a 
particular  piece  of  land,  which  comes  of  frequent  tilling, 
enables  the  careful  grower  to  judge  accurately  of  its 
adaptability  to  particular  fruits  or  even  to  particular 
varieties. 

If  the  land  is  not  in  good  condition,  it  may  be  well  to 
prepare  it  two  years  or  so  in  advance  by  careful  plowing 
and  tilling  and  the  turning  under  of  clover,  alfalfa,  cow- 
pea,  or  other  humus-maker.  Speaking  of  new  land  in 
Colorado,  to  be  used  for  the  raspberry  industry,  Herrick 
and  Bennett  say  that  "Not  infrequently  fruits  of  various 
kinds  are  set  in  raw  land  that  has  never  been  plowed  except 
in  the  rows  where  the  plants  were  set.  In  such  cases  the 
plants  often  grow  in  a  stunted  way  and  never  acquire  the 
vigor  that  they  should  attain.  One  of  the  best  crops  for 
growing  on  raw  land  is  alfalfa.  If  alfalfa  has  made  a  good 
growth  it  may  be  plowed  under  the  second  fall  and  if  the 
soil  is  poor  in  humus  it  would  be  well  to  plow  under  the 
last  cutting.  This  will  do  much  in  bettering  the  physical 
condition  of  raw  soil.  It  is  well  to  follow  the  alfalfa  with  a 
hoed  crop  of  some  kind,  such  as  potatoes,  corn,  and  so 
forth.  This  will  help  to  do  away  with  the  weeds  and 
leave  the  soil  in  fine  condition  for  planting. 

"Another  reason  why  land  should  be  cropped  before 


94  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

setting  out  raspberries  is  that  when  raw  land  is  first 
irrigated  it  almost  always  settles  more  or  less  in  spots. 
As  irrigation  is  necessary  year  after  year,  it  is  important 
that  the  land  has  the  right  slope  and  has  a  compara- 
tively smooth  surface." 

Subsequent  tillage. 

The  best  tillage  of  planted  areas  is  that  which  begins 
early  in  the  season,  and  which  keeps  the  surface  stirred 
until  late  summer  or  early  fall;  and  the  best  implements 
are  those  that  secure  this  result  with  the  least  expenditure 
of  time  and  labor.  For  the  first  few  years,  it  is  advisable  to 
turn  the  land  rather  deep  with  a  plow  at  the  first  spring 
working.  For  the  subsequent  tillage  of  the  season,  there 
are  many  styles  of  clod-crushers,  spring-tooth  harrows,  cut- 
aways and  smoothing-harrows,  which  adapt  themselves 
readily  to  the  particular  soil  area  in  question. 

There  is  no  single  style  of  tool  best  for  all  soils  or  for 
all  years.  As  a  general  statement,  it  may  be  said  that  for 
all  heavy  lands  the  fruit-grower  needs  four  types  of  har- 
rows,— the  cutaway  or  spading-harrow  type  for  hard  land 
and  the  first  spring  work ;  the  spring-tooth  type ;  the  Acme 
or  clod-crusher  type;  and  the  smoothing-harrow  type.  The 
last  is  to  be  used  only  to  make  and  maintain  the  surface 
mulch  after  the  land  has  been  put  in  fine  tilth.  In  all 
friable  or  loose  soils,  shallow  tillage  is  always  preferable. 
When  the  land  is  once  in  good  condition,  little  effort  and 
time  are  required  to  run  through  the  orchard.  Crust 
should  never  be  allowed  to  form,  and  weeds  should  be 
killed  before  they  become  firmly  established.  The  entire 
surface  of  the  orchard  should  be  thoroughly  stirred  as 
often  as  once  in  ten  days  or  two  weeks  while  the  tillage 
season  lasts. 


Surface  Tillage  95 

In  general,  level  culture  is  best.  This  is  secured  by 
plowing  one  year  to  the  trees  and  the  following  year 
away  from  them;  one  year  north  and  south,  and  the  next 
year  east  and  west.  It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  plow  away 
from  large  trees,  however,  and  with  the  cultivators  or 
harrows  now  in  use,  it  is  easy  to  work  the  soil  away, 
allowing  the  furrow  to  be  thrown  toward  the  tree  each 
spring,  particularly  if  the  land  is  in  good  tilth;  but  it  is 
always  advisable,  on  fairly  level  ground,  to  plow  the 
orchard  in  opposite  directions  in  alternate  years.  Land  so 
wet  that  it  needs  to  be  thrown  permanently  into  ridges  for 
drainage  is  not  often  adapted  to  fruit. 

The  difficulty  of  working  close  to  the  trees  has  had  the 
effect  of  encouraging  too  high  pruning.  There  is  a  tendency 
to  start  tops  too  high  rather  than  too  low,  thereby  expos- 
ing great  length  of  trunk  to  injuries  of  sun  and  wind,  and 
elevating  the  top  beyond  the  reach  of  pickers  and  of 
sprays.  For  most  trees  the  ideal  length  of  trunk  is  under 
5  feet  rather  than  above  it,  and  tillage  implements  now  in 
the  market  allow  of  this  lower  training.  Trees  with  low 
tops,  or  that  hang  low  with  fruit,  can  be  reached  by  sepa- 
rating the  halves  of  any  of  the  double  harrows  by  means 
of  a  long  doubletree,  so  that  the  halves,  when  adjusted, 
run  3  to  5  feet  from  each  other.  A  cutaway  harrow  rigged 
in  this  way  will  work  the  back  furrows  from  under  the 
trees  during  the  season.  All  cultivators  or  harrows  with 
high  handles,  wheels  or  levers  should  be  discarded  if 
orchards  are  worked  when  the  limbs  bend  low  with  fruit. 
An  implement  of  the  grape-hoe  type  may  be  used  with 
advantage  in  some  cases  to  loosen  the  earth  about  the 
trees.  A  single-horse  plow,  with  a  set-over  beam  (as  in 
Fig.  19),  is  also  most  excellent  for  plowing  close  to 
trees  and  bushes.  The  objection  to  medium-low  heads 


96 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


arises  from  the  use  of  the  old-fashioned  implements  of 
tillage,  and  also  from  a  misconception  of  what  the  plow- 
ing of  an  old  orchard  should  be;  for  if  the  orchard  is 
properly  cared  for  in  its  earlier  years, 
very  heavy  breaking  will  not  be  needed 
in  its  later  life. 

This  labor  of  working  about  trees  is 
greatly  facilitated  by  the  use  of  harnesses 
which  have  no  metal  projections.  There 
should  be  no  hames  with  elevated  tops, 
and  the  turrets  on  the  back-pads  should 
be  simply  leather  loops.  The  back-pad 
itself  should  be  reduced  to  a  single  wide 
strap  devoid  of  wadding.  Harnesses  with 
no  traces,  but  drawing  by  a  single  chain 
between  the  horses,  have  been  designed 
for  orchards,  but  they  have  not  become 
popular  with  workmen. 

The  better  the  plowing  and  other  till- 
age of  the  orchard  in  the  first  few  years  of 
its  life,  the  easier  and  more  efficient  the 
subsequent  plowing  should  be.  If  care  is 
taken  to  keep  the  land  friable  and  well- 
filled  with  humus,  it  may  not  be  necessary  to  turn  fur- 
rows at  the  spring  plowing  after  four  or  five  years. 
Persons  commonly  suppose  that  an  orchard  must  be 
plowed  the  same  as  corn  or  potato  ground,  by  inverting 
the  land  and  running  regular  furrows;  but  inasmuch  as 
the  object  is  only  to  keep  the  land  mellow  on  top,  and 
not  to  get  a  crop  into  it,  heavy  plowing  is  not  essential. 
Very  often  some  of  the  heavier  harrows  or  light  gang- 
plows  may  be  used  to  tear  up  the  ground  in  spring,  if 
the  land  has  been  put  into  proper  condition  when  the 


FIG.  19.  Set-over- 
beam  vineyard  plow. 


Surface  Tillage  97 

plantation  was  young.  This  is  especially  true  in  light 
lands  on  which  peaches  are  generally  grown.  If  cover- 
crops  are  to  be  plowed  under,  these  remarks  may  not 
apply.  In  the  first  few  years,  however,  it  is  essential  to 
plow  moderately  deep  to  break  up  the  earth  and  to  send 
the  roots  down.  A  world  of  trouble  with  the  orchard 
will  be  saved  if  the  suggestions  hi  this  paragraph  are 
fully  understood. 

Specific  advice  on  tillage. 

1.  Begin  to  till  when  the  orchard  is  planted,  and  till 
the  entire  surface.  If  trees  are  properly  set,  and  if  tillage 
is  begun  the  first  year,  the  roots  will  go  deep  enough  to 
escape  the  plow.  The  roots  of  trees  spread  much  farther 
than  the  tops.  The  illustrations  give  examples  from  trees 
of  which  the  tops  and  roots  have  been  carefully  measured. 
Fig.  20  shows  a  standard  Howell  pear  seven  years  after 
planting.  It  grew  on  a  hard  clay  knoll,  but  with  tillage. 
The  full  spread  of  the  top  was  7  feet.  Two  roots  were  laid 
bare,  and  they  ran  off  in  one  direction  to  a  distance  of 
21  feet.  Assuming  that  they  ran  an  equal  distance  in  the 
other  direction,  the  spread  of  roots  was  42  feet,  or  six 
times  that  of  the  top;  and  yet  it  is  commonly  said  that 
the  spread  of  roots  and  tops  is  about  equal.  These  roots 
were  long  and  whip-like.  The  soil  was  so  poor  that  they 
were  obliged  to  run  far  and  wide  for  pasture.  Compare 
the  upper  tree  in  Fig.  21.  This  is  a  Fall  Orange  apple, 
of  equal  age,  in  rich  well-tilled  soil.  Here  the  roots  are  in 
good  pasture,  and  they  remain  at  home;  yet  their  spread 
is  twice  that  of  the  top.  The  top  of  this  tree  had  a  diameter 
of  8  feet,  and  the  roots  were  followed  8  feet  on  one  side. 
These  object-lessons  enforce  the  importance  of  tilling  all 
the  land  between  trees. 
G 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


But  these  figures  teach  another  lesson.  Even  at  their 
highest  point,  the  roots  of  Fig.  20  are  8  inches  below 
the  surface.  They  escape  the  plow.  A  like  remark  applies 
to  the  upper  tree  in  Fig.  21.  Compare  the  lower  tree 
in  Fig.  21;  this  tree  is  the  same  age  as  the  others,  but 
had  always  stood  in  sod.  The  roots  ran  10  feet  in  one 
direction  and  the  total  spread  of  the  top  was  6  feet;  but 
the  roots  lie  just  underneath  the  surface. 
This  land  could  not  be  plowed  without 
great  injury  to  the  tree.  Let  us  consider 
the  relation  of  this  tree  to  moisture :  the 
roots  are  in  the  driest  part  of  the  soil; 
the  grass  is  pumping  out  the  water  and 
locking  it  up  in  its  own  tissues  and 
sending  it  into  the  atmosphere  with 
great  rapidity;  the  soil  is  baked,  and 
pulls  up  the  water  by  capillary  attrac- 


FIG.  20.  The  long  roots  of  a  pear  tree  in  very  hard  land,  extending  21  feet  and 
lying  2  Yi  feet  below  the  surface  at  the  extremity. 

tion  and  discharges  it  into  the  air;  there  is  no  tillage  to 
stop  this  waste  by  spreading  a  mulch  of  loose  and  dry  soil 
over  the  earth.  If  one  were  to  sink  a  well  under  this  tree 
and  were  to  erect  a  windmill  and  pump,  he  could  not  so 
completely  deprive  the  tree  of  moisture;  and  the  less 
moisture,  the  less  food. 

In  comparing  apple  trees  in  sod  and  in  tillage  at  the 
close  of  a  five-year  period,  Hedrick  found  a  similar 
condition:  "The  roots  of  the  trees  in  the  sod-mulch  plat 
came  to  the  very  surface  of  the  ground.  How  much  these 


Roots  and  Tillage 


99 


trees  suffered  by  the  destruction  of  roots  in  the  heat  and 
drought  of  summer  or  the  cold  of  winter  cannot  be  said. 
In  the  tilled  land  the  roots  were  found  in  greatest  abun- 
dance at  a  depth  of  from  3  to  10  inches.  The  circumfer- 
ence of  the  root-systems  in  the  tilled  trees  is  approxi- 
mately circular,  but  the  circumference  of  the  roots  of  the 
trees  in  sod  is  very  irre- 
gular, indicating  a  reach- 
ing out  of  a  part  of  the 
roots  in  response  to  a 
demand  for  more  mois- 
ture, food,  or  air,  or  to 
escape  some  evil  effect  of 
the  grass  roots." 

In   young  orchards, 
then,  it  is  commonly  best 
to  plow  rather 
deep — say    6 
to  8  inches — 
in    order   to 
send  the  roots 
down.      Of 
course,   the 
plow     should 

not  be  run  deep  close  to  the  trunk  of  the  tree.  The 
careful  plowman  will  turn  out  his  plow  when  he  comes 
close  to  the  tree.  This  deep  plowing  for  a  few  years 
will  ameliorate  the  land,  establish  the  root-habit  of  the 
tree,  and  obviate  much  of  the  necessity  of  laborious  plow- 
ing in  after  years. 

2.  Tillage  should  be  begun  early  in  the  season,  in 
orchards.  Trees  complete  most  of  their  growth  in  length 
by  the  first  of  July.  Early  tillage  saves  the  moisture  which 


FIG.  21.  The  deep  roots  (above)  in  tilled  land,  and  the  very 
shallow  roots  in  sod  land. 


100  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

has  accumulated  in  winter  and  spring;  it  is  capable  of  put- 
ting the  soil  in  fine  mechanical  condition,  and  this  condi- 
tion may  be  as  important  as  fertility;  it  warms  up  the  soil 
and  sets  the  plants  quickly  to  work;  it  turns  under  the  her- 
bage when  that  herbage  is  soft  and  moist  and  when  there 
is  moisture  in  the  soil,  so  that  the  herbage  soon  breaks 
down  and  decays.  All  catch-crops  should  be  plowed  under 
as  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry  enough  in  the  spring,  for  these 
crops  soon  take  the  water  from  the  soil  and  cause  it  to  bake 
and  cement  together,  and  the  longer  they  remain  the  more 
difficult  it  is  to  cause  them  to  rot  when  turned  under. 
Hard  and  woody  herbage,  plowed  under  late  in  the  season, 
may  remain  as  a  foreign  body  in  the  soil  all  summer,  break- 
ing the  connection  between  the  upper  and  lower  soil,  and 
thereby  preventing  the  upward  movement  of  the  water 
and  causing  the  top-soil  to  dry  out  completely.  The  chief 
value  of  crimson  clover,  rye,  or  other  catch-crop  in  the 
orchard  lies  in  its  fall  growth  and  its  protection  of  the  soil 
in  winter,  not  in  its  growth  in  late  spring. 

Few  persons  are  aware  that  the  season  of  growth  in 
most  woody  plants  in  cold  climates  extends  scarcely  to 
midsummer.  This  is  no  doubt  one  reason  why  they  are 
able  to  endure  the  winter.  Plants  that  cease  growing 
early,  and  mature  their  wood  well,  are  often  said  to  be 
determinate  in  their  growth,  while  those  of  opposite  habit 
are  said  to  be  indeterminate.  It  is,  of  course,  apparent 
that  plants  of  indeterminate  growth  are  not  hardy;  as  a 
rule  most  fruit  trees  are  determinate. 

3.  Tillage  should  usually  be  stopped  in  late  summer  or 
very  early  autumn.  The  tree  has  completed  its  growth.  It 
must  now  ripen  and  prepare  for  winter.  It  can  spare  some 
of  the  moisture  that  comes  with  the  fall  rains.  We  may, 
therefore,  sow  some  catch-  or  cover-crop. 


How  to  Till  101 

The  above  advice  follows  what  is  practically  the 
universal  experience  in  the  North,  that  the  late  growth  of 
trees  in  autumn,  particularly  of  the  tenderer  fruits  as 
peaches,  is  likely  to  produce  a  soft  or  immature  condition 
that  may  render  the  tree  liable  to  severe  injury  by  winter 
cold.  Chandler  finds,  however,  that  one  of  the  ways  in 
which  to  avoid  injury  to  fruit-buds  by  the  cold  "spells" 
of  late  winter  and  early  spring  in  the  region  of  south 
Missouri  and  in  similar  climates  is  to  prolong  the  rest- 
period  of  the  variety  so  that  it  will  not  swell  its  buds  so 
early.  He  finds  that  with  peaches  the  different  varieties 
have  rather  definite  rest-periods,  at  the  expiration  of 
which  the  buds  start  very  readily.  Anything  that  tends 
to  make  a  strong  late  growth  in  the  autumn  has  the 
effect  of  postponing  or  delaying  this  rest-period.  This 
prolonging  of  the  growth  in  fall  is  accomplished  by  prun- 
ing the  trees  severely  either  that  year  or  the  year  before, 
and  also  by  the  use  of  nitrogenous  fertilizers  the  preceding 
spring.  These  statements  have  reference  only  to  the 
killing  of  the  fruit-buds  when  they  start  prematurely,  and 
probably  does  not  affect  the  usual  experience  in  regard  to 
the  winter-hardiness  of  the  wood  or  tree  itself.  Frost- 
injury  is  again  considered  in  Chapter  VIII. 

4.  Operate  in  such  way  that  the  land  shall  be  in  uni- 
formly fine  tilth.    Orchards  plowed  late  in  spring  are 
usually  in  bad  condition  all  the  season,  especially  if  the 
soil  is  clay.    Fall-plowing  of  stiff  and  bare  lands  is  likely 
to  result  in  the  puddling  of  the  soil  by  the  rain  and  snow, 
as  already  explained  (p.  83) ;  if  there  is  sod  on  the  land, 
this  injury  is  less  likely  to  follow.    In  general,  it  is  best 
to  let  orchard  lands  pass  the  winter  under  a  cover-crop. 

5.  Tillage  may  be  overdone.   Trees  may  be  made  to 
grow  too  much  wood,  and  therefore  too  little  fruit,  and  they 


102  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

may  be  sent  into  the  winter  in  soft  and  unripened  condition. 
If  land  is  in  good  tilth,  as  it  is  when  in  best  condition  for 
the  growing  of  potatoes  or  melons,  tillage  beyond  that 
needed  to  conserve  the  moisture  is  useless.  It  is  a  common 
practice  to  head-in  trees  that  are  making  too  vigorous 
growth,  but  this  practice  usually  aggravates  the  difficulty 
rather  than  corrects  it.  The  rational  treatment  for  such 
trees  is  to  check  the  growth  by  some  means,  as  by  lessen- 
ing the  tillage  or  by  withholding  stimulating  fertilizers. 

CROPPING   THE   PLANTATION 

It  will  now  be  asked  what  crops  may  be  grown  in 
the  fruit-plantation:  fruit-crops  always,  grain  and  hay 
never! 

Any  hoed  or  tilled  crop  .may  be  used  for  the  first  few 
years;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  every  crop  com- 
petes with  the  trees  for  food  and  moisture,  and  whatever 
may  befall  the  crop,  the  trees  should  not  be  allowed  to 
suffer.  As  a  general  statement,  it  may  be  said  that  a  space 
3  or  4  feet  wide  should  be  left  on  all  sides  of  the  tree  the 
first  year,  and  this  area  should  be  enlarged  a  foot  or  two 
each  year;  and  the  space  should  continue  to  enlarge  until 
the  trees  occupy  the  entire  surface.  Corn  and  some  other 
luxuriant  plants  appropriate  moisture  more  quickly  than 
can  the  tree.  In  general,  some  low-growing  crop  that 
demands  good  tillage  and  comes  off  the  land  early  is  best. 
The  notion  that  young  trees  should  be  shaded  by  a  crop  is 
probably  erroneous  for  most  regions.  In  orchards  set  less 
than  20  feet  apart,  the  land  should  rarely  be  cropped  after 
the  third  year;  but  apple  orchards,  if  well  cared  for,  may  be 
cropped  lightly  for  seven  or  eight  years.  In  no  case  should 
the  grower  expect  to  secure  as  much  crop  on  orchard  land 


Cropping  103 

as  on  other  areas;  and  the  drier  the  land,  the  less  it  should 
be  cropped.  When  the  orchard  comes  to  bearing  age,  it 
should  have  the  entire  land.  Thereafter,  the  most  profit- 
able secondary  crop  to  raise  is  cultivators. 

In  general,  only  those  crops  are  allowable  in  a  fruit- 
plantation  that  demand  such  treatment  as  to  improve  the 
land  for  the  fruit-plants.  The  growing  of  light  crops  is  a 
means  of  keeping  the  land  stirred  when  it  might  other- 
wise be  neglected;  and  if  the  grower  is  careful  to  see  that 
the  physical  condition  of  the  land  is  improved,  and  adds 
enough  plant-food  to  supply  the  loss,  the  light  cropping 
of  orchards  for  the  first  few  years  may  be  a  decided  benefit. 
At  all  events,  tilled  crops  are  better  than  sod.  The  danger 
is  that  the  fruit-grower  will  continue  the  cropping  too  long, 
and  expect  too  much  from  it.  Strawberries  and  the  bush- 
fruits  may  be  advantageously  set  in  alternate  rows  with 
beans  or  potatoes,  and  the  same  tillage  is  required  for  each 
crop.  It  is  well  to  fertilize  the  tilled  crop  liberally,  for  the 
trees  will  receive  some  of  the  benefit.  When  orchards 
begin  to  bear  well,  the  crops  should  be  discontinued. 

The  growing  of  nursery  stock  in  orchards — a  frequent 
practice  in  parts  of  the  North — should  be  discouraged. 
This  crop  makes  essentially  the  same  demands  on  the  land 
as  the  orchard  itself,  and  it  does  not  allow  of  those  varia- 
tions in  cultivation  and  management  that  may  be  essential 
to  the  varying  seasons.  It  may  be  true  that  enough  fertil- 
izer can  be  used  to  replace  the  loss  of  plant-food,  but  it  is 
rarely  added;  and,  more  than  this,  the  nursery  stock  con- 
sumes the  moisture  that  should  be  used  by  the  orchard. 
Nursery  stock  is  known  to  be  particularly  hard  on  land, 
so  much  so  that  nurserymen  seldom  grow  two  crops  of 
fruit-tree  stocks  in  succession  on  the  same  area;  but  this 
injury  to  the  land  is  an  impairment  of  physical  or  other 


104  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

condition  rather  than  mere  exhaustion  of  plant-food.   (See 
Chapter  IV.) 

Young  orchards  may  sometimes  be  summer-fallowed 
with  the  very  best  results  if  the  land  is  hard  and  intrac- 
table. This  fallowing  is  clean  cultivation.  This  is  often 
the  quickest  and  cheapest  way  of  bringing  such  lands  into 
fit  condition  for  the  growing  of  the  fruit,  and  the  longer 
the  process  is  delayed  after  the  plants  are  set,  the  more 
difficult  and  the  less  efficient  the  labor  will  be.  This  sum- 
mer-fallow should  be  begun  very  early  in  the  season  and 
continued  until  midsummer,  at  which  time  some  cover- 
crop  may  be  sown.  It  is  a  way  of  correcting  or  overcoming 
the  lack  of  good  preparation  of  the  land  hi  the  beginning, 
or  the  results  of  subsequent  neglect. 

Orchard  crops. 

It  is  best  to  grow  only  annual  crops  in  the  orchard. 
Garden-truck  is  usually  good,  because  it  receives  good 
tillage  and  fertilizing,  and  usually  does  not  shade  the 
fruit  plants.  If  the  farm  carries  live-stock,  which  of  course 
must  be  fed,  the  range  of  crops  that  can  be  grown  with 
profit  is  extended.  Rowed  and  tilled  peas,  beans,  roots, 
cabbage,  tomatoes,  and  the  like  (Fig.  22),  may  be  useful. 
Potatoes  are  good  as  a  crop,  but  the  digging  may  come  at 
a  time  when  it  will  interfere  with  cover-cropping  or  when 
it  may  constitute  a  too  late  tillage. 

In  all  corn-growing  regions,  Indian  corn  is  probably 
the  most  frequent  crop  in  the  young  orchards,  and  it 
appears  to  give  good  results  if  sufficient  space  is  left 
about  the  trees.  Thornber  makes  the  following  sum- 
mary on  the  use  of  corn  in  irrigated  orchard  lands  (Lewis- 
ton  Orchards  Life,  June,  1914):  "The  high  price  of 
choice  fruit-land  under  irrigation  in  the  Pacific  North- 


Corn  in  Orchards 


105 


west,  and  the  cost  of  bringing  an  orchard  to  bearing,  have 
compelled  the  fruit-growers  to  make  a  careful  study  of 
the  best  methods  for  reducing  the  cost  of  producing  an 
orchard.  Every  opportunity  of  resource  applicable  to 
young  orchards  has  been  thoroughly  tested  and  the  effects 
of  the  crops  noted  upon  the  soil,  as  well  as  upon  the 
young  trees;  and  while  crops  have  been  found  that  will 


FIQ.  22.  Cropping  a  young  orchard. 

produce  more  money  value  per  acre,  none  with  an  equal 
amount  of  labor  will  give  a  more  uniform  tree-growth  and 
cause  an  orchard  to  come  into  bearing  more  satisfactorily 
than  corn.  Garden  and  small-fruit  crops  easily  give  greater 
financial  returns,  but  require  more  time  and  labor  to  pro- 
duce them.  Alfalfa  has  the  advantage  of  being  a  more 
sure  crop,  and  one  that  will  give  larger  returns  per  acre, 
but  is  not  adapted  to  very  young  trees;  however,  it  is  more 
satisfactory  among  older  trees."  Care  must  be  taken  not 
to  plant  corn  too  close  to  the  trees  or  bushes,  so  that  they 


106  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

will  be  shaded;   and  it  is  well  not  to  plant  the  most 
robust  varieties. 

The  growing  of  clover,  buckwheat,  rye  and  other, 
crops  for  the  purpose  of  plowing  under  belongs  to  another 
line  of  practice.  It  is  discussed  in  the  succeeding  chapter. 

IRRIGATION   Or  FRUIT-LANDS 

The  irrigation  of  fruit-plantations  is  of  two  kinds, — 
that  which  is  necessary  to  the  growing  of  the  plants  (as 
in  arid  and  semi-arid  regions),  and  that  which  is  employed 
secondarily  in  a  humid  region  to  help  make  a  particular 
crop.  The  former  kind  is,  in  essentials,  the  same  as  general 
irrigation,  in  the  countries  and  regions  in  which  irrigation 
is  essential  to  farming;  only  the  special  applications  of 
the  water  may  be  peculiar.  The  reader  who  intends  to 
raise  fruit  in  an  arid  or  semi-arid  region  will  perfect  him- 
self on  this  subject  before  he  undertakes  the  enterprise.* 

Supplemental  irrigation  for  humid  regions  is  often 
feasible  and  profitable  for  special  crops,  mostly  for  those 
that  represent  a  high  investment  in  capital,  equipment 
and  labor. 

Irrigation  in  the  East  (C.  S.  Wilson). 

The  systems  of  irrigation  used  in  humid  regions  may 
be  divided  into  two  classes:  (1)  surface  irrigation;  (2) 
overhead  sprays. 

The  surface  system,  which  is  the  more  widely  used, 
distributes  the  water  by  means  of  ditches  and  furrows. 
A  ditch,  which  is  the  main,  carries  the  water  along  the 
side  or  through  the  orchard  and  empties  it  into  the  furrows, 
by  which  it  is  distributed  over  the  entire  area.  For  such 

*Consult,  for  example,  Paddock  &  Whipple,  "Fruit-Growing  in  Arid  Regions." 


Irrigation  in  Humid  Regions  107 

crops  as  fruit,  grain,  alfalfa,  clover,  and  the  like,  the  sur- 
face system  is  employed,  and  furnishes  the  best  practi- 
cable method  of  applying  the  water. 

The  overhead  system  is  employed  in  the  humid  as  well 
as  the  arid  sections  of  the  country,  particularly  in  the 
case  of  those  areas  intensively  cultivated.  It  has  been 
used  mostly  on  such  crops  as  cucumber,  strawberry, 
lettuce,  tomato,  bean,  eggplant,  potato,  squash,  and 
the  like — in  fact  all  garden  crops.  The  plan  is  to  lay 
stationary  pipes  over  the  whole  field,  or  to  provide  movable 
sections  of  pipes  mounted  on  wheels.  The  advantages  of 
this  system  are:  (1)  The  crops  are  sprayed  naturally  when- 
ever desired;  (2)  there  is  no  waste  land;  (3)  water  is  applied 
uniformly  over  the  entire  surface;  (4)  it  is  especially 
adapted  to  the  shallow-rooted  crops.  The  disadvantages, 
on  the  other  hand,  are:  (1)  It  necessitates  an  expensive 
system  of  piping;  (2)  it  requires  a  powerful  pumping  plant 
which  gives  a  pressure  of  twenty  to  fifty  pounds  to  the 
square  inch ;  (3)  the  quantity  of  water  wasted  by  evaporation 
is  excessive;  (4)  the  pipes  interfere  with  tillage  operations. 

The  so-called  Skinner  system  of  irrigation  may  be 
cited  as  an  example  of  the  overhead  method.  It  consists 
essentially  of  pipes  supported  above  the  ground  40  to  60 
feet  apart,  in  which  are  set  small  nozzles  at  intervals  of  3 
or  4  feet.  The  pipe  is  turned  by  means  of  a  union  and 
handle  to  cover  ground  very  near  or  more  distant  from  the 
line.  The  best  water-pressure  is  thirty  to  forty  pounds, 
and  a  single  line  throws  its  rain-like  spray  about  25  feet. 
In  addition  to  the  advantages  mentioned  above,  advocates 
of  this  system  assert  that  it  is  a  protection  against  frost, 
and  an  excellent  means  of  distributing  insecticides,  fungi- 
cides and  commercial  fertilizers. 

To  what  extent  irrigation  will  increase  in  the  East 


108  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

remains  to  be  seen.  Thus  far,  insufficient  experimental 
evidence  has  been  collected  as  to  its  real  value.  Probably 
it  will  never  be  used  commercially  to  any  extent  for  the 
tree-fruits,  because  the  annual  rainfall  in  most  of  the 
fruit-growing  districts  east  of  the  Mississippi  is  sufficient 
for  the  plants,  if  the  farmer  practises  thorough  tillage.  It 
is  possible  that  irrigation  may  be  beneficial  in  the  case 
of  the  small-fruits  or  in  certain  localities  where  the  rain- 
fall is  insufficient,  and  it  has  been  so  employed  in  a  few 
places  in  eastern  plantations.  An  abundance  of  water  is 
of  particular  value  to  small-fruits  at  the  time  of  ripening 
and  it  is  often  at  this  time  that  the  dry  spells  come. 

The  grower  should  remember  that  irrigation  cannot 
take  the  place  of  tillage;  the  two  go  together.  When  the 
soil  is  well  tilled,  the  water  of  irrigation  distributes  itself 
better  than  when  tillage  is  neglected.  Moreover,  when 
water  is  applied  to  lands  not  tilled,  puddling  is  liable 
to  result.  Another  difficulty  connected  with  the  applica- 
tion of  water  is  the  collection  of  alkali  at  the  surface. 
This  is  a  well-known  trouble  in  the  arid  regions.  The 
alkali  of  the  soil,  which  dissolves  in  the  water,  is  brought 
up  by  the  moisture,  and  as  the  moisture  evaporates,  it  is 
deposited  at  the  surface.  Where  irrigation  is  continued 
year  after  year,  the  amount  of  this  alkali  may  increase  to 
considerable  amounts. 

The  value  of  irrigation  to  the  eastern  grower  should  be 
determined  by  the  experiment  stations,  and  these  stations 
are  now  working  on  the  question.  Until  more  definite 
results  are  secured,  the  grower  should  look  to  thorough 
tillage  as  the  most  economical  means  of  supplying  moisture. 
It  seems  reasonable  to  predict  that  the  fruit-grower  will 
not  find  it  profitable  to  practise  irrigation  to  any  con- 
siderable extent  in  the  East. 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE  ENRICHING  OF  FRUIT-LANDS 

ANY  land  that  is  fit  for  the  growing  of  crops  will  main- 
tain a  fruit-plantation  throughout  its  existence  without 
the  addition  of  plant-food,  and  enable  the  trees  to  produce 
at  the  same  time  a  normal  quantity  and  quality  of  fruit. 
But  the  profit  in  fruit-growing  lies  in  securing  the  extra- 
normal  or  superior  quantity  and  quality,  and  this  result 
demands  every  good  care  and  often  the  addition  of 
fertilizer.  How  much  plant-food  the  farmer  shall  add  to 
his  land,  if  any,  depends  on  the  amount  of  increase  or 
profit  that  can  be  secured.  If  the  fruit-grower  applies 
two  tons  of  fertilizer  to  the  acre  and  secures  a  profit  on 
the  investment,  the  quantity  may  be  none  too  large;  but 
in  some  cases  it  is  a  loss  of  the  material  to  add  anything. 
The  successful  merchant  is  the  one  who  is  dissatisfied  with 
a  normal  and  common  trade,  and  he  stimulates  the  demand 
by  attracting  and  interesting  the  market  beyond  the  point 
of  its  usual  needs. 

The  land  is  to  be  kept  at  work. 

Many  causes  contribute  to  the  occasional  unsatis- 
factory results  of  applying  fertilizers  to  orchards,  small- 
fruit  plantations,  and  similar  areas,  but  the  commonest 
one  is  lack  of  proper  tillage  and  preparation  of  the  land. 
Poorly  tilled  land,  not  only  refuses,  as  we  have  seen,  to 
give  up  its  own  stores  of  wealth,  but  it  will  delay  and 
even  preclude  the  good  results  from  the  plant-foods  that 

(109) 


110  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

may  be  added  to  it.  The  first  thing  to  do,  then,  is  to  make 
it  possible  for  the  plant  to  grow.  If  the  physical  and 
environmental  conditions  are  right,  the  addition  of  plant- 
food  is  capable  of  being  felt.  The  plant  must  be  made 
comfortable  before  it  will  thrive.  A  cow  will  not  relish 
even  the  fanciest  ration  if  she  is  uncomfortable. 

The  grower  must  set  himself  in  line  with  natural 
methods.  He  must  see  that  the  soil  has  a  good  supply  of 
humus  or  organic  matter  (from  crops  turned  under, 
dressings  of  stable-manure,  muck,  and  the  like),  and  that 
it  usually  has  some  cover.  Early  in  the  season,  this  cover 
is  the  surface  mulch  of  tilled  soil,  and  later  it  is  the  cover- 
crop  of  rye  or  crimson  clover  or  something  of  the  kind. 

Bare  land  becomes  unproductive  land.  Its  elements 
must  be  unlocked  and  worked  over  and  digested  by  roots. 
The  surface  must  be  covered  to  catch  the  rains  and  to 
hold  the  snows,  to  retain  moisture,  and  to  prevent  the 
baking  and  cementing  of  the  soil.  The  plant  tissues  add 
fiber  and  richness,  and  make  the  land  amenable  to  all  the 
revivifying  influences  of  sun  and  rain  and  air  and  warmth. 
The  plant  is  co-partner  with  the  weather  in  the  building 
of  the  primal  soils.  The  lichen  spreads  its  thin  substance 
over  the  rocks,  sending  its  fibers  into  the  crevices  and 
filling  the  chinks,  as  they  enlarge,  with  the  decay  of  its 
own  structure;  and  finally  the  rock  is  fit  for  the  moss  or 
fern  or  creeping  vine,  each  newcomer  leaving  its  impress 
by  which  some  later  newcomer  may  profit.  Finally  the 
rock  is  disintegrated  and  comminuted,  and  is  ready  to  be 
still  further  elaborated  by  corn  and  ragweed.  Nature 
intends  to  leave  no  vacant  or  bare  soils.  She  providently 
covers  the  railway  embankment  with  quack-grass  or 
willows,  and  she  scatters  daisies  in  the  old  meadows  where 
the  land  has  grown  sick  and  tired  of  grass.  If  one  pulls  up 


The  Weeds  111 

a  weed,  he  must  quickly  fill  the  hole  with  some  other  plant, 
or  Nature  will  tuck  another  weed  into  it.  Man  is  yet  too 
ignorant  or  too  negligent  to  care  for  the  land,  and  Nature 
must  still  stand  at  his  back  and  supplement  the  work 
which  he  so  shabbily  performs.  She  knows  no  plants  as 
weeds.  They  are  all  equally  useful  to  her.  It  is  only  when 
we  come  to  covet  some  plant  that  all  those  which  interfere 
with  it  become  weeds  to  us.  If,  therefore,  we  are  compe- 
tent to  make  a  choice  of  plants  in  the  first  place,  we 
should  also  be  able  to  maintain  the  choice  against  in- 
truders. It  is  only  a  question  of  which  plants  we  desire 
to  grow. 

We  must  keep  the  land  at  work,  for  it  grows  richer  and 
better  for  the  exercise.  A  good  crop  on  the  land,  aided  by 
good  tillage,  will  keep  down  the  weeds.  The  weeds  do  not 
"run  out"  the  sod,  but  the  sod  has  grown  weak  through 
some  fault  of  our  own,  and  thus  the  dandelions  and  plan- 
tains find  a  chance  to  live.  So  the  best  treatment  for  a 
weedy  lawn  is  more  grass.  If  the  farmer  occupies  only 
half  the  surface  of  his  field  with  oats,  the  other  half  is 
bound  to  be  occupied  with  mustard  or  wild  carrot  or 
pigweed;  but  if  his  land  is  all  taken  with  oats,  few  other 
plants  can  thrive.  So,  a  weedy  farm  is  a  poorly  farmed 
farm.  But  if  it  does  get  foul  and  weedy,  then  use  a  short 
quick,  sharp  rotation.  Keep  the  ground  moving  or  keep 
it  covered.  No  Russian  thistle  or  live-forever  or  jimson- 
weed  can  ever  keep  pace  with  a  lively  and  resourceful 
farmer. 

This  attitude  is  as  important  in  fruit-growing  as  in 
general  farming.  The  land  must  be  kept  active  and  at 
work,  which  means  that  the  fruit-grower  must  be  active 
and  at  work.  When  this  is  accomplished  and  the  fruit- 
plantation  is  still  unproductive,  other  means  must  be 


112  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

considered;  and  one  of  these  means  is  to  apply  plant-food 
materials. 

The  lesson  of  nursery  lands. 

The  injurious  effects  of  leaving  soils  bare,  and  of 
tilling  at  untimely  seasons,  are  well  illustrated  in  most 
nursery  plantations.  The  best  nursery  lands  are  the 
"strong"  lands,  or  those  containing  a  basis  of  clay,  and 
these  are  the  ones  that  soonest  suffer  under  unwise  treat- 
ment. The  nursery  land  is  kept  under  clean  culture,  and  it 
is,  therefore,  deeply  pulverized.  There  is  practically  no 
herbage  on  the  land  to  protect  it  in  the  winter.  When 
the  crop  is  removed,  even  the  roots  are  taken  out  of  the 
earth.  For  four  or  five  years,  the  land  receives  practically 
no  vegetation  that  can  rot  and  pass  into  humus;  and  more- 
over, the  trees  are  dug  in  the  fall,  often  when  the  soil  is 
in  unfit  condition,  and  this  fall  digging  amounts  to  a  fall 
plowing.  The  soil,  deeply  broken  and  robbed  of  its  humus, 
runs  together  and  cements  before  the  following  summer; 
and  it  then  requires  three  or  four  years  of  "rest"  in  clover 
or  other  herbage  to  bring  it  back  into  its  rightful  condition. 
This  resting-period  allows  Nature — if  man  grants  her  the 
privilege — to  replace  the  fiber  in  the  soil,  and  to  make  it 
once  more  so  open  and  warm  and  kindly  that  plants  may 
find  a  congenial  root-hold  in  it. 

Chemical  analyses  of  nursery  stock  show  that  the 
amounts  of  potash,  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen  that  such 
stock  removes  are  really  very  small,  and  less  than  those 
removed  by  a  similar  bulk  or  weight  of  corn  or  wheat. 
Experiments  with  the  addition  of  concentrated  or  chemical 
manures  to  heavy  nursery  lands  seem  not  to  have  shown 
very  important  results;  but  there  are  greater  hopes  from 
the  sowing  of  crimson  clover  and  other  cover-crops  in  the 


The  Cover  on  the  Land  113 

nursery  rows,  and  in  the  use  of  stable  manures.  There 
are  examples  of  excellent  results  following  the  addition 
of  stable  manure  to  nursery  lands  between  the  trees  in 
autumn.  One  piece  of  land  so  treated  has  grown  excellent 
plum  trees  for  twenty  consecutive  years. 

COVER-CROPS 

The  vegetable  matter  or  fiber  may  be  supplied  by 
herbage  plowed  under  and  by  the  addition  of  stable 
manures  or  similar  amendments.  We  may  first  consider 
the  growing  of  herbage  for  the  amending  of  the  land. 

A  cover-crop  is  used  for  the  particular  purpose  of 
securing  its  mulching  and  physical  effect  on  the  land  in  the 
intervals  between  the  regular  fruit  crops  or  the  normal  sea- 
sons of  tillage.  A  sowed  crop  in  the  orchard  may  be  valua- 
ble in  two  ways :  by  affording  a  cover  to  the  land,  and  by 
improving  the  soil  when  it  is  plowed  in.  As  a  cover,  it 
may  keep  down  weeds  and  protect  the  land  from  injurious 
effects  of  frost.  As  a  green  manure,  it  may  add  fiber  to 
the  soil,  and  thus  augment  its  power  of  holding  fertility 
and  moisture,  and  it  may  add  directly  to  the  plant-food. 
This  late  crop  catches  and  holds  the  nitrates  which  the 
tree-roots  utilize  earlier  in  the  season.  Taken  as  a  whole, 
the  cover-crop  may  be  said  to  improve  the  soil  as  follows : 

1.  It  protects  the  land  and  directly  improves  its  physical 

condition: 

Prevents  hard  soils  from  cementing  or  puddling; 
Holds  the  rains  and  snows  until  they  have  time  to  soak 

away  into  the  land; 
Holds  the  leaves  from  blowing  away; 
Dries  out  the  soil  in  spring,  making  early  tillage  possible; 
Sometimes  serves  as  a  protection  from  frost; 
Prevents  washing  in  winter. 
H 


114  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

2.  It  improves  the  chemical  condition  of  the  soil: 

Catches  and  holds  some  of  the  leaching  nitrates; 

Adds  humus; 

Renders  plant-foods  available; 

Appropriates  nitrogen,  if  it  is  leguminous. 

As  a  rule,  crops  grown  for  cover  alone  should  be  sown 
not  earlier  than  midsummer.  The  most  thorough  tillage 
can  then  be  given  early  in  the  season,  and  the  benefits  of 
the  cover  may  be  secured  for  early  autumn,  winter  and 
spring.  It  is  usually  advisable  to  grow  a  crop  that  answers 


FIG.  23.  Plowing  under  a  cover-crop  in  spring. 

for  both  cover  and  green  manure,  although  it  is  possible 
to  make  the  soil  too  nitrogenous  for  some  fruits  by  the 
extravagant  use  of  the  legumes.  It  will  also  be  observed, 
from  the  above  enumeration  of  the  benefits  arising  from 
cover-crops,  that  crops  killed  by  the  winter  may  still  be 


Accumulation  of  Nitrogen  115 

very  useful.  The  reader  must  also  be  reminded  that  much 
of  the  value  of  the  cover-crop  depends  on  its  being  plowed 
under  very  early  in  spring  (Fig.  23). 

It  is  probably  not  often  that  one  secures  too  rapid 
growth  of  his  fruit-plants  by  the  use  of  leguminous  cover- 
crops,  and  yet  it  seems  to  be  a  common  opinion  among 
growers  that  this  may  occur.  The  experience  of  George 
T.  Powell,  in  eastern  New  York,  has  been  much  quoted. 
In  a  pear  orchard  he  grew  three  very  heavy  successive 
crops  of  crimson  clover  and  plowed  them  under,  with 
the  result  that  the  trees  grew  too  heavily  and  bore 
too  little.  An  analysis  of  the  soil  was  made  by  Cava- 
naugh  and  also  of  the  same  character  of  soil  from  a 
neighbor's  field  just  across  the  fence,  with  the  following 
results: 


Three  crops 
crimson  clover 
Per  cent 

No  clover 
Per  cent 

1500 

8.75 

.21 

.12 

2.94 

1.91 

Phosphoric  acid  (available)  ............. 

.015 

.008 

These  percentages  are  calculated  to  the  acre,  estimating 
1,500,000  pounds  of  fine  soil  to  the  acre-foot  (3,000,000 
pounds  is  the  average  weight  of  an  acre-foot,  but  in  this 
case  about  50  per  cent  of  the  soil  was  sufficiently  fine 
to  be  included  in  the  analysis);  the  increase  in  per- 
centages, as  computed  to  pounds  or  tons  to  the  acre, 
is  as  follows: 

Water 6.25  per  cent =46.875  tons  to  the  acre. 

Nitrogen 09  per  cent =1,350  pounds  to  the  acre. 

Phosphoric  acid. .   .007  per  cent=  105  pounds  to  the  acre. 


116  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

There  is  much  confusion  in  the  popular  mind  as  to 
the  relation  of  cover-crops  to  moisture.  Some  contend 
that  any  crop  which  shades  the  ground  will  keep  the 
surface  moist  and  conserve  moisture,  whereas  others, 
knowing  that  all  plants  exhale  water,  consider  that  any 
crop  tends  to  make  the  land  dry.  Both  these  opinions 
are  in  part  correct.  A  crop  that  occupies  the  land  the 
entire  season,  and  that  does  not  allow  of  tillage,  will  make 
the  land  dry,  whereas  one  sown  late  in  the  season  on  land 
that  has  been  thoroughly  tilled  during  May,  June  and 
July,  does  not  seriously  rob  the  soil  of  moisture.  At  all 
events,  there  need  be  little  fear  of  drying  out  the  soil  by 
sowing  a  late  crop,  for  the  serious  injury  by  drought  is 
usually  effected  before  such  crops  are  established,  and 
rainfall  is  then  becoming  abundant;  and  the  trees  may  need 
to  be  checked  rather  than  stimulated,  at  this  season,  by  the 
transfer  of  the  nitrates  and  moisture  to  other  plants. 
The  most  marked  way  in  which  such  crops  conserve 
moisture  is  by  means  of  the  fiber  and  humus  that  they 
add  to  the  land  when  plowed  under;  but  even  this 
humus  cannot  compete  with  cultivation  as  a  retainer  of 
moisture.  Both  humus  and  tillage  are  essential  for  best 
results. 

The  kinds  of  cover-crops. 

It  should  be  said  at  the  outset  that  the  choice  of  the 
proper  crop  for  the  covering  of  an  orchard  is  a  local 
matter,  the  same  as  is  the  method  of  tillage  or  the  kind 
of  fertilizer.  There  is  also  no  one  best  cover-crop  for  all 
purposes  and  all  circumstances.  The  grower  must  study 
the  condition  of  his  trees  and  his  land,  and  then  judge  as 
best  he  may  what  course  he  shall  pursue.  Nature's  cover- 
crops,  at  least  on  farms,  are  weeds,  and  these  may  be  use- 


Clover  and  Others  117 

ful  if  allowed  to  grow  in  autumn  after  the  tillage  is  com- 
pleted. The  difficulty  is  that  they  cannot  always  be  relied 
upon  to  cover  the  land  at  the  time  when  they  are  wanted, 
most  of  them  do  not  live  through  the  winter,  and  they  are 
very  likely  to  become  a  serious  nuisance.  It  is  best,  there- 
fore, to  substitute  some  other  plant  for  the  weeds.  Red 
clover  is  a  stand-by,  but  it  often  fails  to  "catch"  if  sown 
late  in  the  season,  and  it  should  stand  on  the  land  an 
entire  season  in  order  to  contribute  its  full  value.  On 
good  and  well-tilled  lands  and  in  favorable  seasons,  con- 
siderable herbage  can  be  secured  for  turning  under  in  the 
spring  if  clover  is  sown  the  preceding  August  or  September; 
but  in  general  it  is  unreliable  as  an  annual  crop,  and  is 
not  adapted  to  fruit-lands.  Mammoth  clover  is  considered 
to  be  better  than  the  common  red. 

In  approaching  the  question  of  the  choice  of  cover- 
crops,  the  grower  .must  understand  that  there  are  two 
great  classes  hi  respect  to  their  supposed  power  to  gather 
nitrogen.  The  one  class  is  non-leguminous,  comprising 
those  plants  that  take  only  such  nitrogen  as  has  already 
been  worked  over  into  available  form  by  plants  or  animals; 
the  other  class  is  the  leguminous,  comprising  those  plants 
that  have  the  power  of  appropriating  and  utilizing  free 
nitrogen  through  the  action  of  root-nodules.  For  purposes 
of  cover  and  protection,  the  non-leguminous  crops  may  be 
just  as  good  as  the  nitrogen-gatherers,  and  when  the  fruit- 
plants  are  growing  very  vigorously  they  may  be  decidedly 
better  than  the  others  because,  by  not  adding  nitrogen, 
they  do  not  over-stimulate  the  growth. 

A  rotation  of  cover-crops  will  nearly  always  be  found 
to  be  important.  Some  of  the  most  useful  cover-crops 
will  not  thrive  on  hard  and  intractable  land,  and  in  such 
cases  a  rougher  and  coarser  crop  must  be  used. 


118  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

The  golden  scale  of  cover-crops  for  orchards  begins 
with  rye  and  ends  with  crimson  clover.  Lands  that  are 
very  sandy  and  leachy,  as  well  as  those  that  are  hard  and 
lumpy,  are  usually  not  adapted  to  the  growth  of  crimson 
clover,  especially  in  the  North.  Such  lands  must  be  grad- 
ually ameliorated  by  the  use  of  other  plants,  and,  as  a  rule, 
the  best  plant  to  begin  with  is  rye. 

Rye  thrives  on  a  great  variety  of  soils,  it  demands 
little  preparation  of  the  land,  the  seeds  are  large  and 
germinate  at  a  low  temperature,  it  grows  early  and 
strongly  in  spring,  it  may  be  sown  late  in  the  season  after 
tilled  crops  are  removed,  and  it  is  exceedingly  hardy. 
Rye  may  be  sown  at  the  very  moment  of  the  freezing  of 
the  land,  and  it  will  sometimes  germinate  the  following 
spring.  It  is  ordinarily  best,  however,  to  sow  it  about 
a  month  or  six  weeks  (or  even  two  months)  before  the 
land  is  expected  to  freeze;  and  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
cover,  not  less  than  one  and  one-half  bushels  should 
be  sown  to  the  acre  when  orchards  are  young.  When  the 
trees  have  begun  to  shade  the  ground,  a  less  quantity  may 
suffice. 

Indian  corn;  is  sometimes  used  to  begin  the  amelio- 
ration of  intractable  lands,  sown  broadcast  very  thickly, 
six  weeks  or  two  months  before  killing  frost.  Although  it 
does  not  withstand  the  winter,  it  nevertheless  affords  an 
excellent  cover  and  supplies  a  large  quantity  of  herbage. 

Buckwheat  may  be  used  for  the  same  purpose,  sown 
so  late  in  the  season  that  it  will  reach  its  full  height  but 
will  not  go  to  seed.  There  is  danger,  however,  of  using 
buckwheat  too  much;  only  an  occasional  crop  of  it  should 
be  sown  and  on  orchards  growing  on  the  hard  types  of 
land. 

Turnips  and  rape  are  also  to  be  recommended  in  certain 


Kinds  of  Cover-Crops  119 

cases.  Turnips  sown  late  in  July  in  the  North  make  a 
complete  cover  of  the  land,  and  furnish  so  much  bulk  and 
moisture  as  greatly  to  improve  the  character  of  the  land 
when  they  are  plowed  under  the  following  spring.  Turnips 
are  especially  good  to  begin  the  process  of  improvement 
in  certain  hard  lands  that  are  much  inclined  to  be  dry. 
They  contain  much  potash.  The  large  cowhorn  turnips 
are  usually  preferred  for  cover-crop  work,  although  the 
smaller  turnips  may  be  sown  with  them.  Dwarf  Essex 
rape  furnishes  much  herbage  at  little  cost. 

Oats,  wheat,  barley,  millet,  and  various  other  quick- 
growing  crops  may  be  utilized  as  covers,  but  they  are  less 
adapted  to  the  purpose  than  those  that  have  been  men- 
tioned. In  order  to  impress  the  different  qualities  on  the 
mind,  it  may  be  well  to  say  that  rye  and  corn,  and  the  like, 
are  to  cover-crops  what  pigs  and  mules  are  to  domestic 
animals. 

Leguminous  crops  comprise  the  various  kinds  of  peas, 
beans,  vetches,  and  the  clovers  and  their  kin.  If  it  is 
desired  to  grow  a  leguminous  crop  on  hard  and  dry  land, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  choose  those  with  large  and  quick- 
germinating  seeds,  as  the  beans  and  the  field  peas.  Com- 
mon field  beans  may  be  sown  broadcast  late  in  the  season, 
and  if  they  can  have  six  weeks  of  uninterrupted  growth, 
will  make  a  good  cover  before  killed  by  frost.  Canada  peas 
are  not  injured  by  the  early  frosts  of  fall,  and  therefore 
may  be  sown  later.  In  New  York,  peas  sown  as  late  as  the 
20th  of  September  reached  a  height  of  about  6  inches,  and 
were  large  enough  to  afford  a  fairly  good  cover,  if  they 
were  sown  very  thick.  But,  in  general,  in  the  northern 
states,  it  is  advisable  to  sow  not  later  than  the  last  of 
August  or  the  first  of  September. 

The  cowpea  (Vigna  sinensis)  may  often  be  used  to 


120  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

the  greatest  advantage,  especially  in  the  middle  and  south- 
ern states  where  the  long  seasons  allow  it  to  make  a  most 
luxuriant  and  satisfactory  growth.  It  is  probably  destined 
to  fill  the  office  in  the  southern  states  that  red  clover  fills 
in  the  North,  and,  if  properly  used,  can  no  doubt  be  made 
the  means  of  filling  the  burned-out  soils  of  the  South  with 
fresh  life  and  vigor.  It  is  killed  by  the  earliest  frost,  and 
is,  therefore,  not  advisable  at  the  North,  unless  sown 
early  or  on  land  that  is  "quick." 

Vetch  or  tare  (Vicia  sativa)  as  a  cover  was  brought 
forward  by  the  Cornell  Station,  in  1892.  It  is  a  legumi- 
nous plant  of  strong  growth.  If  sown  in  the  northern  states 
in  late  July,  it  makes  a  dense  cover  that  is  killed  by  hard 
frosts  and  mats  down  like  a  carpet  before  spring.  The 
seeds  are  large  and  start  readily.  Its  great  drawback  is  the 
cost  of  the  seed,  and  about  thirty  to  fifty  pounds  should 
be  sown  to  the  acre  on  open  lands. 

Winter  or  hairy  vetch  (Vicia  villosa)  withstands  the 
winter  and  grows  in  spring.  The  seed  is  likely  to  be  expen- 
sive; thirty  to  fifty  pounds  are  required  to  the  acre.  It 
thrives  on  rather  poor  as  well  as  on  rich  soils. 

Sweet  clover  or  melilotus  (Bokhara  clover)  is  sometimes 
mentioned  as  a  cover-crop,  particularly  for  hard  and  dry 
lands  and  those  on  which  it  is  difficult  to  secure  a  catch 
of  clover;  but  further  experience  is  needed  with  this  plant. 

Crimson  or  scarlet  clover  was  brought  prominently  to 
the  fore  as  a  cover-plant  for  orchards  by  the  Delaware 
Experiment  Station  in  1892.  It  is  an  excellent  cover-crop 
in  the  northern  states,  and  in  Nova  Scotia  (Sears,  Kept. 
N.  S.  Agric.  1904).  It  will  not  thrive  on  hard  or  poorly 
tilled  land.  It  must  be  sown  in  midsummer  or  a  trifle 
after,  when  the  ground  is  likely  to  be  dry.  The  seeds  are 
small  and  oily,  and  the  grower  is  likely  to  fail  in  secur- 


Crimson  Clover  121 

ing  a  "catch."  On  the  better  tilled  lands,  however,  crimson 
clover  may  be  expected  to  succeed  as  often  as  any  other 
plant  of  its  class.  Growers  have  made  a  mistake  in  expect- 
ing too  heavy  growth  of  herbage  in  the  crimson  clover. 
It  is  an  annual  plant,  normally  completing  its  entire 
growth  in  a  single  season.  When  sown  at  midseason, 
therefore,  it  should  not  be  expected  to  yield  a  very  heavy 
crop.  If  it  should  arrive  at  that  stage  when  it  nearly  or 
wholly  covers  the  ground  with  a  thin  close  mat,  it  will 
have  reached  its  most  profitable  condition.  If  the  crimson 
clover  passes  the  winter  and  grows  in  the  spring,  much 
will  be  gained;  but  if  it  should  not  pass  the  winter,  nothing 
will  be  lost.  If  it  is  sown  very  early  (that  is,  before  the 
first  of  July  in  New  York),  it  is  likely  to  become  too 
large  and  ripe,  and  be  killed  by  the  winter;  if  it  is  sown  too 
late  (after  the  middle  of  August),  it  will  ordinarily  not 
attain  sufficient  foothold  to  be  able  to  withstand  the  heav- 
ing by  frost.  Crimson  clover  may  be  sown  among  Indian 


FIG.  24.  Cover-crop  of  alfalfa  in  a  western  orchard. 


122 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


corn  at  the  last  cultivation,  but  in  orchards  it  is  ordinarily 
sown  from  the  nrddle  of  July  to  the  middle  of  August  in 
the  North,  on  a  well-prepared  seed-bed,  and  is  then  lightly 
dragged  in.  In  old  orchards,  six  quarts  to  the  acre  is 
sufficient  seed;  in  the  open  lands,  about  eight  quarts  is 
the  quantity  required. 

Other  plants  are  used  as  cover  now  and  then  or  in 
particular  regions,  as  alfalfa,  velvet  bean  and  beggarweed 
in  the  South,  soybean,  oats  (mostly  in  mixture),  cabbage. 
In  the  North,  the  soybean  should  be  sown  early  and  tilled 
for  a  time.  Alfalfa  is  sometimes  used  as  a  cover  in  orchards 
(as  in  Fig.  24,  from  the  Lewiston-Clarkson  region).  If 
irrigation  is  available,  it  may  be  an  acceptable  crop  for 
providing  abundant  herbage  to  plow  under.  Under  usual 
conditions,  it  is  likely  to  be  kept  too  long  on  the  land. 

Paddock  gives  chemical  analyses  of  cover-crop  plants, 
showing  also  date  of  seeding  and  taking  samples,  yields 
of  green  crops  and  air-dry  roots  to  the  acre : 


Cowhorn 
turnips 

Rape 

Crimson 
clover 

Red 
clover 

Seed  sown  

July  22 

July  22 

July  22 

July  22 

Sample  taken        

Nov.  15 

Nov.  16 

Nov.  22 

Nov  22 

Pounds  green  tops  

11297 

26620 

18800 

6909 

Pounds  air-dry  roots  
Total  yield  

*20522 
31819 

864 
27484 

413 
19213 

1212 
8121 

Pounds  nitrogen  — 
In  tops  

64  4 

116  2 

128  2 

69  8 

In  root  

45  1 

13  2 

6  2 

33  2 

Total          

109  5 

129  4 

134  4 

103  0 

Pounds  potash  — 
In  tops           .    ... 

80  3 

148  2 

84  0 

46  5 

In  roots 

62  3 

13  1 

4  2 

9  9 

Total 

142  6 

161  3 

88  2 

56  4 

Pounds  phosphoric  acid  — 
In  tops 

14  3 

41  8 

59  2 

18  9 

In  roots 

11  7 

5  1 

2  0 

10  1 

Total  

26.0 

46.9 

61.2 

29  0 

•':<The  turnip  roots  were  weighed  in  their  natural  state  just  after  being  dug; 
thi&  is  therefore,  not  air-dry  weight. 


Cover-crop  Plants 


123 


Alfalfa 

Hairy 
vetch 

Cowpeas 

Soy-beans 

Seed  sown 

July  22 

July  22 

July  22 

July  22 

Sample  taken 

Nov.  20 

Nov.  19 

Nov     7 

Nov    11 

Pounds  green  tops          .... 

5430. 

13150 

5933 

10952 

Pounds  air-dry  roots  
Total  yield 

1980 
7410 

600 
13750 

394 
6327 

756 
11708 

Pounds  nitrogen  — 
In  tops 

54  8 

108  0 

65  2 

130  9 

In  roots 

40  4 

13  2 

4  3 

9  3 

Total  

95.2 

121.2 

69.5 

140.2 

Pounds  potash  — 
In  tops       

32.2 

78.4 

47.4 

46  2 

In  roots  

9.5 

7.1 

2.4 

1.8 

Total 

41.7 

85.5 

49.8 

48  0 

Pounds  phosphoric  acid  — 
In  tops 

13.1 

22.5 

16  6 

37  8 

In  roots 

8  5 

4  7 

2  3 

2  4 

Total 

21  6 

27  2 

18  9 

40  2 

In  considering  this  table,  the  reader  will  observe  that 
rape  contains  the  most  nitrogen  of  any  of  the  plants  and 
that  turnips  are  richer  in  this  element  than  is  red  clover. 
This  excess  is  due  to  the  greater  tonnage,  and  it  is  all 
taken  from  the  land.  In  the  case  of  clover  and  similar 
plants,  some  of  the  nitrogen-content  is  usually  new,  since 
a  part  may  be  taken  from  the  air. 

LISTS,  AND  RATES  OF  SEEDING,  OF  COVER-CROP  PLANTS. 


Leguminous — 
Alfalfa. 

Beans  of  all  kinds. 
Beggarweed. 
Clovers  of  all  kinds. 
Cowpea. 

Peas  of  all  kinds. 
Soybean. 
Sweet  clover. 
Vetches  of  all  kinds. 


Non-leguminous — 
Barley. 
Buckwheat. 
Cabbage. 
Corn. 
Millet. 
Oats. 
Rape. 
Rye. 
Turnip. 

Weeds  of  most  kinds. 
Wheat. 


124 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


Withstanding  the  winter  (in  the  North)  and  growing  in  spring. 

Alfalfa.  Sweet  clover. 

Clovers  Turnip  (more  or  less). 

Rape.  Vetch,  winter  or  hairy. 

Rye.  Wheat. 

Average   quantity   of  seed  to  the  open  acre  (modified  from  C.  S. 
Wilson). 

Barley    ......  .  ........................  2      to    2^  bushels. 

Buckwheat    ..........................  1      bushel. 

Clover,  red    ..........................  10      to  15      pounds. 

Clover,  mammoth   ....................  10      to  15      pounds. 

Clover,  crimson    ......................  15      to  20      pounds. 

Cowpea  ....  ..........................   1^  to    2      bushels. 

Millet  ...............................  1^2  bushels. 

Oats  .................................  2      to    3      bushels. 

Peas  .................................  2      to    3      bushels. 

Rape  .................................   IK  to    3      pounds. 

Rye  ..................................    l^to    2      bushels. 

Soybean,  broadcast  .......  .............   1      to    1^  bushels. 

Sweet  clover  ..........................  10    pounds. 

Turnip  ...............................    1^  to   3      pounds. 

Vetch  ................................  30     to   50    pounds. 

Wheat    ..........  .  ...................  2      to    21A  bushels. 

As  all  the  desired  features  are  seldom  found  in  a  single  crop,  com- 
binations are  desirable.  Thus  buckwheat,  which  makes  a  quick 
growth,  does  not  live  through  the  winter  as  does  the  slower-growing 
rye,  so  the  two  combine  well.  Following  are  suggestions: 

/Clover,  red  or  mammoth,  ..................  10     pounds. 

i  Winter  vetch  .............................  15      pounds. 

L  |  Oats  .....................................  H  bushel. 

VCowhorn  turnips  ..........................       K  pound. 

/Rye  ......................................   1       bushel. 

_  JCowhorn  turnips  ...........................  2  pounds. 

I  Crimson  clover  ............................  15      pounds. 

v  Vetch  ....................................  15      pounds. 

May  be  sown  in  August,  in  the  North 


Quantity  of  Seed  125 

( Buckwheat %  bushel. 

3.  -(Oats 1       bushel. 

( Rye 1       bushel. 

4  ( Oats 1 1A  bushels. 

'  I  Clover 15      pounds 

r  ( Buckwheat %  bushel. 

'  ( Oats   1       bushel. 

6  (Oats 11A bushels. 

' )  Rye 1       bushel. 

Many  combinations  may  be  made  of  the  plants  listed  above,  to 
meet  special  conditions;  for  rather  hard  lands  that  need  both  humus 
and  nitrogen,  a  suggested  combination  is  buckwheat  or  cowhorn 
turnip,  rye,  Canada  peas  or  vetch;  or  a  leguminous  crop  may  be 
added  to  3,  5  or  6  above. 

Other  successful  mixtures  are  reported  in  Delaware  by  Close 
(Bull.  No.  60),  as  follows: 

i  Hairy  vetch 40  pounds. 

( Rye 30  pounds. 

( Hairy  vetch 20  pounds. 

( Cowpeas  or  soybeans 45  pounds. 

„  ( Hairy  vetch 20  pounds. 

/  Turnips 12  ounces. 

( Hairy  vetch 20  pounds. 

/  Mammoth  clover 8  pounds. 

( Turnips 8  ounces. 

5.  •<  Rye 20  pounds. 

( Mammoth  clover 4  pounds. 

fi  ( Turnips 12  pounds. 

/  Soybeans  or  cowpeas I 40  pounds. 

7.  \  Rape y 4  pounds. 

jf  Rye 1   bushel. 

Rape 4  pounds. 

8.  Soybeans  or  cowpeas 40  pounds. 

Rye 20  pounds. 

Weights  of  the  seeds  of  cover-plants. 

Following  are  the  customary  seedsmen's  weights  to  the  bushel 
some  of  the  seeds  contained  in  the  above  lists  (Edgar  Brown) : 


126  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

Clover,  alsike,  crimson,  mammoth  red 60  pounds. 

Cowpea 56  to  60  pounds. 

Millet,  barnyard 30  to  60  pounds. 

Millet,  common,  German,  Hungarian 48  to  50  pounds. 

MiUet,  Pearl 48  to  56  pounds. 

Pea,  field 60  pounds. 

Rape 50  to  60  pounds. 

Soybean 58  to  60  pounds. 

Sweet  clover,  hulled 60  pounds. 

Velvet  bean 60  pounds. 

Vetch,  hairy  or  winter 50  to  60  pounds. 

Vetch,  spring 60  pounds. 

ROTATION   OF   PLANTATIONS 

It  is  accepted  that  the  rotation  or  at  least  the  diver- 
sification of  crops  in  orchards  and  other  fruit-plantations 
is  a  desirable  practice  as  a  means  of  conserving  produc- 
tivity of  the  land.  It  is  also  accepted  that  strawberries 
would  better  not  follow  strawberries  or  cane-fruits  follow 
cane-fruits;  but  there  is  little  real  planning  for  the  rotation 
of  plantations  of  the  longer-lived  fruits,  and  yet  such 
rotation  must  be  very  important.  The  following  discus- 
sion may  be  suggestive  (Bailey,  Cyclo.  Amer.  Agric.  II). 

The  grower  usually  does  not  not  lay  out  a  plan  of  land 
management,  one  item  in  which  is  the  growing  of  orchards. 
In  the  case  of  apples,  the  life  of  the  orchard  is  so  great, 
that  the  grower  feels  that  he  is  planting  for  a  lifetime,  and 
he  leaves  succeeding  questions  to  those  who  may  come  after 
him.  Even  apple  orchards  may  be  retained  too  long  for 
profit,  however;  and  peaches,  plums  and  some  other  fruits 
are  not  too  long-lived  to  form  part  of  a  rotation  plan.  The 
rotation  farmer  may  lay  out  a  course  that  is  not  expected 
to  mature  within  twenty  years.  Small-fruits  are  well 
adapted  to  rotationing.  In  fact,  careful  rotation  is  the 
very  best  means  of  keeping  in  check  certain  difficult  dis- 


A  Rotation  Suggestion  127 

eases  and  pests  of  strawberries,  raspberries  and  blackber- 
ries. The  rotation  may  be  between  different  kinds  of  fruits 
themselves,  or  between  fruits  and  field-crop  courses.  The 
point  is  that  fruit-growing  practice  ought  not  to  be  com- 
pletely isolated  from  general  farm-management  plans. 

Rotation  between  the  fruit-plantations  themselves, 
may  be  very  desirable  in  some  cases.  If  one  has  a  100-acre 
farm  on  which  he  wishes  to  make  a  specialty  of  peaches,  he 
might  set  aside  six  fields  of  10  acres  each,  and  set  them  in 
twelve-year  rotations  or  blocks,  planting  a  new  orchard 
every  three  years.  In  this  way  there  would  always  be  a 
new  orchard  coming  into  bearing,  the  grower  could  apply 
the  experience  of  one  orchard  to  the  succeeding  one,  and 
he  could  prepare  the  land  thoroughly  in  advance  of  each 
setting,  and  he  would  have  some  land  left  for  other  crops. 

On  small  farms,  such  a  plan  could  not  be  applied, 
except  for  small-fruits.  Neither  would  it  be  adaptable  to 
farms  presenting  very  different  or  various  conditions;  for 
many  properties  are  broken  into  irregular  fields  by  creeks, 
gulches,  slopes,  forests  or  hills,  and  only  a  part  of  such 
natural  subdivisions  might  be  adapted  to  fruit. 

The  following  display  shows  how  this  plan  would 
work  out.  The  heavy  figures  show  orchards  in  bearing; 
it  will  be  seen  that  there  are  always  three  orchards  in 
bearing  after  the  plan  is  in  full  working  maturity.  It  is 
assumed  that  six  years  intervene  between  the  plantings 
on  the  same  ground.  The  letters  a,  6,  c  show  how  the 
elements  in  a  three-course  crop-rotation  would  combine 
with  the  orchards,  if  it  is  assumed  that  it  would  be  safe 
or  desirable  to  crop  the  orchard  lightly  for  the  first  three 
years.  The  blank  or  treeless  years  would  be  used  in  gen- 
eral field-crop  practice.  This  plan  is  not  recommended, 
but  is  given  to  suggest  a  line  of  study: 


128 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


ROTATION  SCHEME  OF  PEACH  ORCHARDS 
Heavy  figures  represent  bearing  years 


First 
orchard 

Second 
orchard 

Third 
orchard 

Fourth 
orchard 

Fifth 
orchard 

Sixth 
orchard 

1900a 

19016 

1902c 

1903 

1903a 

1904 

19046 

1905 

1905c 

1906 

1906 

1906a 

1907 

1907 

19076 

1908 

1908 

1908c 

1909 

1909 

1909 

1909a 

1910 

1910 

1910 

19106 

1911 

1911 

1911 

1911c 

1912 

1912 

1912 

1912a 

1913 

1913 

1913 

19136 

1914 

1914 

1914 

1914c 

1915 

1915 

1915 

1915a 

1916 

1916 

1916 

19166 

1917 

1917 

1917 

1917c 

1918a 

1918 

1918 

1918 

19196 

1919 

1919 

1919 

1920c 

1920 

1920 

1920 

1921 

1921a 

1921 

1921 

1922 

19226 

1922 

1922 

1923 

1923c 

1923 

1923 

1924 

1924 

1924a 

1924 

1925 

1925 

19256 

1925 

1926 

1926 

1926c 

1926 

etc. 

etc. 

etc 

Aside  from  a  rotation  of  fields,  it  is  often  advisable  to 
lay  out  a  rotation  of  crops  in  the  orchards  themselves 
when  the  trees  are  young.  Such  rotation  practice  would 
reduce  the  great  amount  of  tillage  labor  by  keeping  part 
of  the  area  always  in  clover  or  other  sod,  would  correct  the 
faults  of  a  continuously  recurring  treatment,  would  guard 
against  neglect,  and  would  allow  of  a  somewhat  definite 
plan  of  work  for  some  years  ahead.  The  rotation  should 
be  short  and  should  contain  the  maximum  of  tilled  crops. 
A  three-year  course  might  fit  the  conditions  well,  for  it 


Rotation  Suggestions  129 

would  be  adapted  to  the  varying  early  stages  of  orchards, 
and  would  correspond  with  normal  strawberry  rotations 
and  even  with  the  best  practice  in  raspberry-culture.  One 
to  four  three-year  courses  could  be  run  in  orchards  before 
the  trees  are  large  enough  to  interfere,  depending  on  the 
land,  the  kind  of  fruit  and  the  distance  apart.  A  three- 
year  course  for  young  orchards  should  preferably  have  two 
tilled  crops  and  one  legume  or  sod  crop:  as  (1)  potatoes, 
roots  or  truck-crops,  (2)  corn,  (3)  crimson  clover  or  vetch 
in  fall  or  spring;  or,  again,  as  (1)  corn,  (2)  cotton,  (3)  cow- 
pea  or  velvet  bean.  Sometimes  it  may  be  allowable  to  run 
only  one  tilled  crop,  in  which  case  the  potatoes-wheat-red 
clover  may  be  useful.  Care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  first 
attention  is  given  the  trees,  and  this  should  call  for  manure 
or  fertilizers  with  one  or  more  of  the  courses. 

STABLE   MANURES 

The  kinds  of  fertilizing  applications  are  of  two  types, 
— stable  manures  and  concentrated  or  commercial  plant- 
foods.  The  stable  manures  exercise  a  most  important 
effect  on  the  physical  character  of  the  land,  and,  in  fact, 
this  is  often  their  greatest  value.  In  this  respect,  stable 
manures  may  answer  much  the  same  purpose  as  green- 
or  cover -crops,  particularly  if  they  are  applied  in  fall 
or  early  winter.  When  manure  is  not  sufficient  to  cover 
the  entire  plantation,  it  should  be  applied  to  the  hardest 
and  driest  spots  only,  these  spots  being  observed  and 
noted  the  previous  season.  Lands  so  hard  or  dry  that 
even  rye  will  not  catch  may  be  got  under  way  for  the 
cover-crops  by  liberal  applications  of  barn  manures.  Rota- 
tion in  the  use  of  fertilizers  may  be  found  to  be  as  useful 
as  in  the  case  of  cover-crops.  A  soil  that  has  had  a  liberal 
i 


130  The  Principles,  of  Fruit-growing 

application  of  stable  manure  one  year,  may  profit  more 
by  some  chemical  fertilizer  the  next  year. 

In  thoroughly  tilled  orchards  the  use  of  barn  manures 
should  sometimes  be  discouraged,  for  the  chief  element  of 
fertility  in  them — if  they  are  not  leached — is  usually 
nitrogen.  This  advice  is  particularly  applicable  to  vine- 
yards, and  all  other  fruits  that  run  very  strongly  to  wood. 
In  such  cases,  it  is  better  economy  to  apply  the  manures 
to  the  annual  crops  of  the  farm.  The  old,  neglected  apple 
orchards  of  the  country,  however,  may  receive  barn 
manures  with  safety;  yet,  even  here  it  is  a  question  whether 
economy  would  not  dictate  tillage  and  late  green  manures 
to  supply  the  nitrogen,  except,  perhaps,  for  a  season  or  two 
when  an  attempt  is  making  to  rejuvenate  a  plantation. 
Mulching  a  sod  orchard  with  manure,  or  with  hay  cut  on 
it,  often  gives  fairly  good  results  in  cases  in  which  the 
land  cannot  be  tilled;  but  better  results  in  the  way  of  fer- 
tilizing and  in  freedom  from  weeds  and  insects  may  be 
secured  by  pasturing  closely  with  sheep  or  swine  and 
adding  chemical  manures. 

All  stable  and  barn  manures  should  be  carefully 
protected,  saved  and  utilized:  where  they  should  be  applied 
— whether  on  annual  crops  or  on  fruit-plantations — only 
the  grower  himself  can  determine;  it  is  certain  that  the 
fruits  will  profit  by  them. 

In  blackberry,  raspberry  and  strawberry  plantations, 
stable  manures  may  be  used  moderately  as  a  mulch,  and 
the  leachings  will  be  of  service;  and  if  the  material  finally 
is  plowed  under,  double  results  will  be  secured. 

In  general,  the  same  principles  cover  the  application 
of  manures — as  to  when  and  how — to  fruit-lands  as  to 
general  farm  lands,  and  this  subject  may  not  be  discussed 
here  at  any  length.  The  applications  are  usually  made  in 


Feeding  the  Plantation  131 

the  dormant  season, — from  autumn  till  early  spring.  In 
mature  plantations,  it  is  best  to  apply  manure  to  the  entire 
area  rather  than  to  pile  it  close  to  the  trees  or  vines. 
Plowed  under  in  early  spring,  the  barn  manures  should 
have  a  marked  effect  in  ameliorating  the  land  and  improv- 
ing the  thrift  and  stamina  of  the  plantation. 

CHEMICAL   FERTILIZERS 

Presumably,  fruits  profit  by  the  application  of  ferti- 
lizer to  the  land  because  they  use  the  kinds  of  materials 
that  fertilizers  contain.  The  standard  computations  of 
Roberts,  from  analyses,  show  the  following  values  of 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  taken  from  an  acre 
by  apple  trees  (the  trees  35  feet  apart)  in  twenty  years, 
counting  in  ten  crops  of  fruit: 

Value 

Total  in  fruit  for  twenty  years $147  00 

Total  in  leaves  for  twenty  years 160  51 

Total  in  wood  for  life  of  tree 70  00 


Grand  total $377  51 

"The  value  of  nitrogen,  etc.,  in  any  given  case  is  so 
indefinite  and  variable  that  stress  should  not  be  laid  on 
values  as  given,  but  on  the  total  amounts  of  plant-food 
used  by  the  orchard,  as  follows: 

"The  total  amount  of  nitrogen,  exclusive  of  that  used 
in  the  growth  of  the  trees,  is  1,336.8  pounds,  of  phosphoric 
acid  310  pounds,  and  of  potash  1,895.4  pounds.  To  restore 
the  potash  alone,  as  above  and  that  used  by  the  growth 
of  the  tree,  it  would  require  21.69  tons  of  high-grade  ashes 
containing  5  per  cent  of  potash.  To  restore  the  nitrogen 
as  above  would  require  16.19  tons  per  acre  of  a  commercial 
fertilizer  containing  5  per  cent  of  nitrogen. 


132 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


"How  much  of  this  plant-food  is  usually  furnished  to 
the  orchard  by  leguminous  plants  and  by  feeding  sup- 
plementary foods  to  animals  which  graze  upon  it,  and  how 
much  by  the  fallen  leaves  and  apples  which  are  not 
blown  or  carried  off,  cannot  be  told." 

Another  calculation  by  Roberts  shows  the  amount  of 
plant-food  that  may  be  expected  to  be  carried  away  from 
an  acre  in  the  fruit,  and  blown  off  in  the  leaves  (not  com- 
puting the  amount  in  the  wood),  for  the  period  between 
the  ages  of  thirteen  and  thirty-three  years  of  apple  trees: 


Apples 
Lbs. 

Leaves 
Lbs. 

Value 

Nitrogen 

498  60 

456  75 

$143  30 

Phosphoric  acid 

38  25 

126  00 

11  50 

Potash 

728  55 

441  00 

52  63 

Total  value  

$207  43 

"While  the  above  results  are  reached  by  assuming  a 
given  amount  of  apples  and  leaves  a  year  in  a  bearing 
orchard,  and  while  the  facts  in  any  given  case  at  any 
given  time  may  vary  widely,  yet  it  is  believed  that  they 
are  valuable  as  they  furnish  a  means  of  measuring  in  any 
given  case,  with  a  great  degree  of  accuracy,  the  amount  of 
soil-exhaustion." 

He  also  "shows  that  five  bushels  of  apples  remove 
in  round  numbers  eleven  pounds  of  nitrogen,  nearly  one 
pound  of  phosphoric  acid  and  sixteen  pounds  of  potash, 
and  that  the  leaves  of  a  tree  large  enough  to  produce  the 
apples  would  contain  ten  pounds  of  nitrogen,  nearly  three 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  ten  pounds  of  potash,  or  a 
total  of  twenty-one,  pounds  nitrogen,  three  pounds  phos- 
phoric acid,  twenty-six  pounds  potash." 


The  Calculations  of  Roberts 


133 


"As  a  clearer  comprehension  is  had  by  comparing 
unfamiliar  things  with  familiar  things,  a  table  follows 
which  gives  in  brief  the  soil-exhaustion  which  is  likely  to 
occur  from  a  continuous  twenty-year  wheat-production. 
Here,  again,  an  average  yield  has  been  assumed  which, 
while  approximately  correct  for  New  York,  may  be  wide 
of  the  mark  in  some  states  where  the  average  yield  of 
wheat  falls  to  eight  or  ten  bushels  an  acre. 

"The  following  tables  show  the  amounts  and  values  of 
the  fertilizing  ingredients  removed  by  wheat  (grain  and 
straw)  in  twenty  years'  continuous  cropping,  assuming 
an  average  yield  of  fifteen  bushels  an  acre  and  seven 
pounds  of  straw  to  three  pounds  of  grain: 

"COMPOSITION  OF  WHEAT  AND  STRAW 


Water 
Per  cent 

Nitrogen 
Per  cent 

Phos.  acid 
Per  cent 

Potash 
Per  cent 

Grain  

14.75 

2.36 

.89 

.61 

Straw  

12.56 

.559 

.12 

.51 

'AMOUNTS  AND  VALUE  OF  PLANT-FOOD  REMOVED  IN  ONE  YEAR 
AND  IN  TWENTY  YEARS 


Nitrogen 
Pounds 

Phos.  acid 
Pounds 

Potash 
Pounds 

Total 
value 

Grain, 

one  year  

21.24' 

8.01 

5.49 

$3.99 

Grain, 

Straw, 

twenty  years  
one  year  

424.80 
11  74 

160.20 
2.52 

109.80 
10.71 

79.86 
2.42 

Straw, 

twenty  years       .  .    . 

234  78 

50  40 

214.20 

48.37 

Total  value  in  wheat,  grain  and  straw  for  20  years. . .  .$128 .23 
Total  value  in  apple,  fruit  and  leaves  for  20  years 207 .45 

"The  above  table  shows  that  the  orchard  requires, 
if  fruitful,  plant-food  equal  in  value  to  about  $80  more 


134  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

than  the  wheat.  No  one  would  think  for  a  moment  of 
trying  to  raise  wheat,  even  on  our  best  New  York  land, 
for  twenty  consecutive  years,  even  though  the  soil  was 
fitted  in  the  best  possible  manner  yearly." 

Apple-orchard  experiments. 

Yet,  as  explicit  and  striking  as  are  these  calculations, 
the  results  of  experiments  in  the  fertilizing  of  apple  orch- 
ards are  very  contradictory. 

This  is  perhaps  to  be  expected.  It  probably  represents 
undetermined  differences  in  the  lands  under  experiment. 
Inasmuch  as  we  do  not  possess  sufficient  knowledge  to 
enable  us  to  harmonize  the  results,  some  of  the  most 
prominent  findings  are  given  here  for  such  guidance  and 
information  as  the  reader  may  be  able  to  secure  from 
them.  Hedrick  reports  the  conclusions  of  a  fifteen-year 
experiment  on  the  fertilizing  of  apples  by  the  New  York 
(Geneva)  Experiment  Station  hi  part  as  follows  (Bull. 
No.  381): 

"Current  recommendations  for  fertilizers  in  orchards  are  unreliable 
because  there  have  been  few  investigations  of  the  subject  which  have 
furnished  trustworthy  information.  Present  practices  are  largely 
based  on  the  fertilization  of  field  and  garden  crops,  but  the  needs  of 
apples  cannot  be  compared,  in  the  least,  with  the  needs  of  herba- 
ceous crops  because  of  the  great  difference  in  the  habits  of  growth  of 
the  two  kinds  of  plants.  Fertilizing  apples  is  a  difficult  problem,  too, 
for,  beside  variability  of  plant  and  environment  to  contend  with,  as 
with  all  plants,  it  is  necessary  to  take  thought  of  the  tree  and  of  the 
crop  of  the  future. 

"This  experiment  has  to  do  with  apples— not  apples  and  grass. 
Attention  is  called  to  this  fact  because  most  of  the  investigations 
of  fertilizers  for  apples  have  been  carried  on  with  trees  in  sod.  In  all 
such  experiments  the  interactions  of  soil,  apples,  grass  and  fertilizers 
are  so  complicated  that  a  crucial  test  is  impossible. 

"The  experiment  under  discussion  was  carried  on  in  a  station 


Fertilizers  on  Apples  135 

orchard,  the  soil  of  which  is  a  clay  loam  too  heavy  for  a  good  orchard 
soil  and  not  better  than  the  average  clay  soil  in  the  farm  lands  of 
western  New  York.  The  orchard  has  been  given  the  care  it  would 
have  received  in  a  commercial  plantation. 

"There  are  twelve  plats  in  the  experiment.  The  fertilizers  applied 
each  year  are  as  follows: 

AVERAGE  TO  THE  TREE 

Pounds 
Plats  1  and  9.— Stable  manure 415 . 15 

Plats  2  and  8. — Acid  phosphate 12 . 66 

Plats  6  and  10. — Muriate  of  potash 7 .26 

Acid  phosphate 12 . 60 

Plats  4  and  12.— Muriate  of  potash 7 .26 

Acid  phosphate 12 . 60 

Nitrate  of  soda 3 .67 

Dried  blood 12 .84 

"An  important  consideration  is  that  the  fertilizers  were  put  on 
only  underneath  the  branches  of  the  trees  so  that  a  tremendous 
excess  of  each  has  been  used  and  the  experiment,  therefore,  throws 
light  on  the  question  as  to  whether  excessive  fertilization  is  delete- 
rious to  trees. 

"The  apple  in  the  experiment  is  the  Rome  top- worked  on  Ben 
Davis,  the  Rome  buds  all  having  come  from  one  tree  and  the  stocks 
having  been  selected  carefully.  These  precautions  were  taken  to 
exclude  individual  variations.  Cross-pollination  is  provided  for, 
there  being  over  a  hundred  other  varieties  separating  and  bounding 
the  plats. 

"From  the  data  at  hand  there  seems  to  be  but  one  interpretation 
of  the  results  of  this  experiment.  An  analysis  of  the  soil  before  the 
experiment  was  begun  shows  that  at  that  time  there  was,  in  the  upper 
foot  of  soil,  enough  nitrogen  per  acre  to  last  mature  apples  trees  183 
years;  of  phosphoric  acid,  295  years;  of  potash,  713  years.  From  this 
well-nigh  inexhaustible  storehouse,  tillage,  cover-crops  and  good 
care  have  made  available  all  the  plant-food  these  trees  needed.  It 
may  be  necessary  to  fertilize  some  apple  orchards  in  New  York. 
Such  cases  will  be  found  on  sandy  and  gravelly  soils,  on  lands  very 
subject  to  drought,  on  very  shallow  soils  and  on  soils  quite  devoid  of 
humus.  Some  soils  may  require  one  of  the  chief  elements  of  fertility; 
some,  though  few,  indeed,  need  the  three  which  usually  constitute  a 
complete  fertilizer. 


136  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

"A  fruit-grower  may  assume  that  his  trees  do  not  need  fertilizers 
if  they  are  vigorous  and  making  a  fair  amount  of  new  wood.  If  the 
trees  are  not  vigorous  the  drainage,  tillage  and  sanitary  condition 
of  the  orchard  should  be  looked  to  first  and  the  fertilization  after- 
ward if  then  found  necessary.  Lastly,  before  using  fertilizers  the 
fruit-grower  should  obtain  positive  evidence  by  experimentation  as 
to  whether  an  orchard  needs  fertilizers,  and  what  ones." 

Similar  results  had  been  previously  reported  by  the 
New  York  Station  in  a  test  to  determine  the  effect  of  wood- 
ashes  and  acid  phosphate  on  the  yield  and  color  of  apples 
(Bull.  No.  289).  The  trees  were  forty-three  years  old  when 
the  experiment  was  begun.  "The  results  as  to  color  of 
fruit  lack  uniformity  and  were  not  decided  enough  in  a 
sufficient  number  of  the  twelve  seasons  to  enable  us  to 
state  that  the  fertilizers  applied  improved  the  color  of  the 
apples.  The  influence  on  color  was  most  marked  in  the 
seasons  when  the  climatic  conditions  were  unfavorable  to 
the  development  of  the  fruit. 

"This  experiment  shows  that  fifty-seven  years  of 
orchard  cropping  has  not  reduced  the  soil  of  the  station 
orchard  to  the  condition  where  it  needs  a  "complete" 
fertilizer.  The  fact  that  plowing  under  leguminous  crops 
gives  beneficial  effects  in  the  orchard  shows  that  the  soil 
is  having  a  one-sided  wear.  It  needs  nitrogen  and  humus 
rather  than  potash  and  phosphoiic  acid." 

These  results  are  practically  confirmed  in  a  five-year 
experiment  by  the  New  Hampshire  Station.  Gourley 
reports  that  "Up  to  the  present  time  (1913)  we  have  not 
received  any  cash  return  for  the  fertilizer  that  has  been 
used  in  this  orchard.  The  size  of  fruit  has  been  increased 
by  the  use  of  fertilizers,  especially  by  the  use  of  excess 
nitrogen  and  potash,  as  shown  by  the  percentage  of  No.  1 
apples.  Both  the  area  and  weight  of  the  leaves  were 
increased  by  the  use  of  fertilizers  in  the  year  1913,  no 


Fertilizers  for  Apples  137 

records  being  taken  of  these  factors  previously.  Lime  had 
no  appreciable  effect  on  any  of  the  factors  considered. 
Color  of  fruit  has  not  been  increased  by  any  combination 
of  fertilizers  employed." 

On  the  other  hand,  opposite  results  have  been  secured 
by  the  Massachusetts  and  Pennsylvania  Stations.  The 
Massachusetts  test  had  been  continued  for  twenty  years 
or  more,  when  it  was  reported  that  "The  experiment 
shows  most  decisively  that  apple  trees  must  be  fed  to 
grow  well  and  bear  well." 

"No  one  selection  of  materials/'  the  report  declares,  "can  always 
be  best.  The  manure  in  this  experiment  is  apparently  furnishing  too 
large  a  proportion  of  nitrogen.  The  combination  of  bone-meal  with 
low-grade  sulfate  of  potash  has  produced  good  results.  It  seems 
probable  that,  especially  in  soils  poor  in  lime,  basic  slag-meal  might 
wisely  be  used  in  place  of  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  bone;  but  should 
this  change  be  made,  a  legume  should  be  grown  as  a  cover-crop  to 
furnish  nitrogen.  Experiments  upon  a  larger  scale  to  test  some  of  the 
questions  raised  by  the  results  of  this  are  now  in  progress. 

"The  orchard  is  divided  into  five  plots,  equal  in  area  (about  % 
acre).  Each  plot  contains  twelve  trees, — three  each  of  Gravenstein, 
Baldwin,  Roxbury  Russet  and  Rhode  Island  Greening.  After  one 
year's  preparatory  cultivation,  two-year-old  nursery  trees  were  set 
in  1890.  This  orchard  produced  but  little  fruit  previous  to  1900. 
The  location  is  a  hillside  with  moderate  slope.  The  soil  is  a  strong 
gravelly  loam  which  naturally  produces  mostly  chestnut  and  hem- 
lock. 

"Each  plot  has  been  continuously  fertilized  in  the  same  way  since 
1889.  The  actual  rates  per  acre  are  as  follows: 

Plot  1.— Barnyard  manure  (about  3  ^  cords) 20,000 

Plot  2.— Wood-ashes 2,000 

Plot  3.— Nothing. 

Plot  4. — Bone-meal 600 

Muriate  of  potash 200 

Plot  5.— Bone-meal 600 

Low-grade  sulfate  of  potash  (sulfate  of  potash 

magnesia) 400 


138  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

"The  orchard  was  cultivated  for  the  first  five  years.  Since  then 
it  has  been  continously  kept  in  grass.  The  crops  were  made  into 
hay  and  carried  off  until  the  trees  began  to  bear  freely  in  1903.  Since 
then  the  grass  has  been  cut,  usually  twice  each  season,  and  left  on  the 
ground.  The  hay  crops  each  year  paid  for  the  manures  used  from 
1894  to  1902. 

"The  fruit  was  usually  ranked  in  color  and  general  attractiveness 
in  the  following  order:  Plots  5,  4,  1,  2  and  3.  In  size,  plots  5,  4,  1, 
2  and  3. 

"One  of  the  most  significant  results  of  the  experiments  is  the 
great  superiority  of  plot  5  as  compared  with  plot  4.  The  trees  are 
much  larger  and  they  have  produced  a  much  greater  amount  of  fruit. 
Both  plots  have  annually  received  equal  amounts  of  bone-meal  and 
equal  amounts  of  actual  potash,  100  pounds  per  year.  The  plot 
receiving  potash  in  the  form  of  low-grade  sulf ate  has  produced  much 
better  results.  This  may  be  due  in  part  to  the  magnesia  which  the 
low-grade  sulfate  supplies,  although  it  is  possible  that  there  was  a 
natural  difference  in  the  soil  of  the  two  plots,  or  that  the  sulphuric 
acid  combination  with  potash  is  better  suited  to  the  trees  than  the 
hydrochloric  acid  of  the  muriate." 

Extensive  apple-orchard  tests  have  been  made  by  the 
Pennsylvania  Station,  involving  ten  soil  types,  twelve 
locations,  upward  of  2,600  trees  and  34,000  bushels  of 
fruit  in  a  period  of  five  years.  Some  of  the  conclusions  to 
1913  as  given  by  Stewart  (Bull.  No.  121)  are: 

"The  experiments  of  this  station  have  shown  that  the  fertility 
needs  of  an  orchard  may  be  the  most  important  check  on  its  produc- 
tion. Variations  in  fertilization  alone  have  resulted  in  average 
differences  ranging  from  50  to  460  bushels  an  acre  annually  for  the 
past  four  or  five  years,  depending  on  the  experiment.  These 
results  were  accompanied  by  similar  differences  in  the  growth  and 
general  vigor  of  the  trees. 

"The  time  required  for  results  to  appear  has  been  surprisingly 
short  in  all  cases  where  fertilization  has  proved  to  be  really  needed. 
In  such  cases,  both  the  value  of  fertilization  and  the  kinds  needed 
were  clearly  evident  by  the  middle  of  the  second  season,  and  no 
material  changes  have  occurred  since. 

"Lime  also  has  failed  in  most  cases,  although  it  may  have  some 


Fertilizers  for  Apples  139 

value  in  aiding  growth.  In  addition,  it  may  have  some  indirect 
value  in  facilitating  the  growth  of  leguminous  intercrops,  and  also 
in  correcting  a  possible  toxic  action  possessed  by  the  basic  radicals 
of  a  number  of  salts,  some  of  which  are  present  in  commercial 
nutrients. 

"At  present,  the  high-grade  sulphate  in  our  experiments  is  show- 
ing no  superiority  over  the  muriate  as  a  carrier  of  potash,  but  the 
reverse  is  usually  true.  The  lower  cost  and  easier  handling  of  the 
latter  therefore  give  it  the  preference.  It  is  possible  that  the  low- 
grade  sulphate,  or  the  24  per  cent  'double-manure  salt,'  as  it  is  often 
called  commercially,  may  be  superior  on  account  of  its  magnesia- 
content,  but  this  has  not  yet  been  fully  demonstrated. 

"The  influence  of  proper  fertilization  is  not  transient.  The  gains 
from  it  have  been  greater  in  the  sixth  and  the  last  year  of  some  of 
our  experiments  than  at  any  time  before.  In  one  case,  these  gains 
have  exceeded  1,100  bushels  an  acre.  Where  the  crops  of  the  full 
years  are  not  too  high,  the  yields  usually  have  been  greatly  steadied 
by  proper  fertilization. 

"In  all  our  experiments,  the  action  of  manure  has  proved  to  be 
practically  identical  with  that  of  a  commercial  fertilizer  rich  in 
nitrogen  and  phosphorus.  Their  successes  and  failures  have  coincided 
with  but  two  exceptions,  and  in  those  cases  moisture  rather  than 
plant-food  was  apparently  the  controlling  factor.  The  commercial 
nitrates  and  blood  have  acted  more  quickly  than  the  manure,  and 
the  potash  in  the  latter  has  apparently  been  less  effective  than  that 
in  the  commercial  forms. 

"In  general,  the  influences  that  have  materially  increased  the 
yields  have  also  increased  the  growth.  This  is  true  generally,  unless 
either  occurs  to  an  abnormal  extent.  The  phosphates  seem  to  be  a 
partial  exception  to  this  rule,  and  mild  injuries  also  may  stimulate 
yield  at  the  expense  of  growth. 

"Manure  and  potash  are  the  only  fertilizing  materials  that  have 
shown  a  consistent  benefit  on  the  average  size  of  the  fruit.  This  is 
doubtless  associated  with  their  favorable  relations  toward  available 
moisture,  which  is  the  chief  determiner  of  fruit-size.  Above  a  rather 
indefinite  point,  however,  the  size  of  the  crop  on  the  tree  becomes  the 
dominant  influence  on  fruit-size.  Proper  thinning  and  moisture 
conservation,  therefore,  are  the  most  important  means  of  improving 
the  average  size  of  fruit. 

"The  red  colors  in  apples  can  not  be  increased  materially  by  any 


140  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

kind  of  fertilizer  applications,  though  potash  and  possibly  phos- 
phates may  be  of  some  slight  assistance.  These  colors  are  directly 
dependent  upon  sunlight  and  maturity,  with  the  latter  occurring 
preferably  on  the  tree.  Late  picking,  open  pruning,  light  soils,  sod 
culture  and  mildly  injurious  sprays,  therefore,  tend  to  increase  the 
reds  in  fruits,  while  opposite  conditions  decrease  them. 

"The  retarding  influence  of  nitrogenous  fertilizers  or  manure  on 
color  makes  it  advisable  to  use  them  less  freely  on  some  of  the  red 
varieties,  especially  those  in  which  the  color  comes  on  rather  tardily, 
such  as  the  York  Imperial.  On  the  lighter  soils,  or  in  localities  with 
the  longer  growing  seasons,  this  precaution  is  less  important. 

"It  has  been  noted  that  the  fertilizing  elements  found  effective 
in  certain  experiments  were  not  so  in  others.  In  one  of  our  experi- 
ments, no  form  of  fertilization  has  yet  shown  a  profitable  response, 
and  in  two  others  such  responses  have  come  only  from  manure  and 
mulches.  It  is  evident  therefore  that  the  actual  fertilization  of  a 
given  orchard  is  still  largely  a  local  problem. 

"It  is  possible,  however,  to  indicate  the  more  prominent  char- 
acteristics of  orchards  that  are  in  need  of  fertilization,  and  to  form- 
ulate a  general  fertilizer,  based  on  present  experimental  results,  that 
may  be  used  in  such  orchards  until  more  definite  local  data  can  be 
secured.  (See  page  143.) 

"Present  evidence  indicates  that  the  nitrates,  or  other  specially 
soluble  plant-foods,  are  best  applied  somewhat  after  the  fruit  has 
set.  In  addition  to  greater  effectiveness,  this  delay  enables  the 
rate  of  application  to  be  varied  somewhat  in  accord  with  the  amount 
of  fruit  set,  making  the  applications  heavier  when  the  crop  is  heavy 
and  vice  versa.  In  the  long  run,  this  plan  should  steady  the  yields  and 
get  maximum  benefits  from  the  fertilization  applied." 

What  to  do. 

There  is  every  reason  to  expect,  from  the  nature  of  the 
case,  that  orchards  profit  by  liberal  fertilizing.  Whether 
added  plant-food  is  needed  under  every  set  of  conditions 
is  quite  another  matter,  and  it  is  a  problem  that  must  be 
answered  by  tests  made  on  the  place.  Whether  special 
treatments  are  needed  in  fruit-plantations  to  correct 
toxicity  of  the  soil,  or  to  accomplish  other  results,  is  also 


The  Practical  Problem  141 

as  yet  undetermined.  It  should  not  be  difficult  to  make 
fertilizer  tests,  for  the  results  on  a  few  trees  should  soon 
be  apparent.  In  the  case  of  peaches  and  berries,  there  is 
evidence  enough  of  the  value  of  fertilizing,  and  the  same 
principles  should  apply  to  apples  and  pears,  particularly 
on  the  less  responsive  or  less  retentive  lands.  If  the  trees 
are  doing  well  and  if  the  annual  crops  are  also  thrifty  and 
satisfactory,  the  plantation  may  need  nothing  more  than 
good  care;  but  if  the  results  are  not  satisfactory  or  if  there 
is  indication  of  a  let-down,  the  grower  should  be  alert 
for  a  remedy. 

Having  studied  the  matter  carefully  in  reliable  writ- 
ings, and  having  observed  his  plantation  from  day  to  day 
and  year  to  year,  the  grower  should  be  able  to  discover 
about  the  treatment  needed.  An  orchard  in  sod  and  not 
doing  well  should  be  plowed  and  tilled.  One  that 
is  tilled  and  is  not  doing  well  may  be  benefited  by  seeding 
down,  or  it  may  not.  If  the  growth  is  strong  and  rapid, 
and  the  trees  or  vines  seem  to  be  going  to  wood  at  the 
expense  of  fruit,  then  some  check  may  be  necessary. 
This  check  may  be  given  by  seeding  down  for  a  time, 
by  giving  somewhat  less  thorough  or  prolonged  tillage, 
or  by  the  use  of  rather  more  mineral  fertilizers  and  less 
nitrogenous  materials.  In  all  cases  in  which  the  growth 
is  not  sufficient  and  the  leaves  are  yellow  and  drop  early, 
it  is  probable  that  either  more  nitrogen  or  more  moisture 
is  needed,  or  both.  As  a  general  principle,  it  may  be  said 
that  nitrogen  is  to  be  had  in  sufficient  quantity  by  thor- 
ough and  judicious  tillage,  by  the  use  of  leguminous  cover- 
crops,  and  by  stable  manures.  In  some  cases,  however, 
quicker  and  cheaper  results  may  be  had  by  the  direct 
addition  of  nitrogenous  materials,  as  nitrate  of  soda, 
sulfate  of  ammonia,  or  some  of  the  animal  compounds. 


142  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

The  grower  should  also  remember  that  the  plants  need 
all  the  elements  of  plant-growth,  and  not  one  of  them 
alone.  For  example,  a  heavy  application  of  nitrogen  to 
soil  deficient  in  potash  and  phosphorus  cannot  be  expected 
to  give  useful  results.  Similarly,  the  application  of  potash 
to  soil  that  is  very  poor  in  nitrogen  or  phosphoric  acid 
would  be  comparatively  unavailing.  The  heavy  loamy 
or  clay  lands  usually  contain  abundance  of  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid  in  a  more  or  less  unavailable  condition, 
and  much  of  these  materials  may  be  liberated  to  the  plant 
by  careful  tillage  and  the  incorporation  of  humus.  How- 
ever, it  is  nearly  always  advisable,  in  bearing  orchards, 
to  add  these  materials  in  manures  or  concentrated  ferti- 
lizers. The  quickest  results  following  the  use  of  fertilizers 
will  be  seen  in  the  sandier  lands.  Two  or  three  years  often 
elapse  after  the  application  of  chemical  fertilizers  to  heavy 
lands  before  any  decided  results  are  observed.  In  other 
words,  clay  lands  ordinarily  show  quicker  results  from 
tillage  than  from  fertilizers. 

While  all  this  may  seem  to  be  wholly  unsatisfactory 
to  the  man  who  wants  recipes  and  rule-of-thumb  direct- 
tions,  nevertheless  it  is  impossible  to  do  more  than  to 
suggest  and  to  give  advice.  The  uncertainty  will  seem  less 
to  the  actual  practical  grower,  however,  than  to  one  who 
r£ads  about  the  situation  and  is  not  yet  hard  against  the 
problem.  The  actual  grower,  if  he  is  acute,  arrives  at  a 
judgment  from  experience  and  observation  that  is  not 
far  wrong.  He  talks  with  his  neighbors,  visits  other  planta- 
tions, attends  the  meetings,  hears  lectures,  reads,  and  asks 
questions.  All  good  farm  practice  is  guided  by  such  means. 

Individual  plants. — It  may  not  be  necessary  to  treat 
the  plantation  as  a  whole.  The  soils  and  other  conditions 
may  differ  widely  in  different  parts.  If  single  trees  or 


Formula  for  Apples  143 

plants  are  unthrifty,  they  should  be  given  separate  treat- 
ment. The  experienced  orchardist  picks  out  these  trees 
at  a  distance  by  the  lighter  shade  of  green,  the  sparser 
leafage,  and  the  lesser  growth.  The  first  inquiry  should  be 
for  borers,  collar-rot,  canker,  sun-scald,  mice  injury, 
or  other  special  attacks  or  difficulties.  If  the  trouble  does 
not  lie  here,  or  in  the  union  at  the  graft  or  bud,  or  in 
over-bearing,  he  may  assume  that  soil  conditions  are  at 
fault.  Digging  up  the  soil  about  the  tree  or  bush,  or  apply- 
ing a  good  top-dressing  of  manure  or  a  liberal  supply  of 
nitrate  of  soda,  is  likely  to  give  positive  results.  Sometimes 
the  difficulty  is  unusual  dryness,  on  a  hard  or  leachy  spot, 
and  the  application  of  water  may  help  immediately, 
and  the  incorporation  of  vegetable  matter  and  the  reshap- 
ing of  the  surface  to  catch  the  rains  may  help  permanently. 
Recommendation  for  apples. — Stewart  gives  "a  general 
fertilizer  recommendation  for  apples"  as  follows,  for 
preliminary  use  in  orchards  that  are  apparently  in  need  of 
fertilization: 

Nitrogen  (N)  30  pounds,  carried  in  100  pounds  nitrate  and 

150  pounds  dried  blood,  or  in   150  pounds  ammonium 

sulphate. 
Phosphoric   acid    (PzOb)   50   pounds,    carried   in   350   pounds 

acid  phosphate,  or  in  200  pounds  bone-meal,  or  in  300 

pounds  basic  slag. 
Potash  (KaO)  25  to  50  pounds,  carried  in  50  to  100  pounds 

muriate,  or  in  100  to  200  pounds  of  low-grade  sulphate. 

The  amounts  are  for  an  acre  of  bearing  trees;  for 
young  orchards,  reduce  these  amounts  in  proportion  to 
the  area  covered. 

"This  formula  means  that  a  fertilizer  carrying  about 
thirty  pounds  of  actual  nitrogen,  fifty  pounds  of  actual 
phosphoric  acid  (P205),  and  twenty-five  to  fifty  pounds 
of  actual  potash  (K2O)  should  be  applied  on  an  acre  of 


144  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

bearing  trees.  Where  potash  is  not  known  to  be  lacking, 
the  smaller  amount  may  be  used,  or  after  a  little  testing 
it  may  even  be  omitted  entirely.  With  the  smaller  amount 
of  potash,  the  essentials  of  the  present  combination  are 
carried  in  500  pounds  of  a  6-10-5  fertilizer  or  its  equivalent. 
In  the  usual  ready-mixed  fertilizers,  the  nitrogen  is  likely 
to  be  carried  in  ammonium  sulphate,  with  which  some  lim- 
ing may  be  necessary  if  many  applications  are  made,  and 
especially  if  leguminous  cover-crops  or  permanent  covers 
are  desired.  In  special  or  in  home-made  mixtures,  the 
various  elements  may  be  carried  in  any  of  the  materials 
indicated." 

Other  suggestions  for  apples  and  pears. — "When  the 
stage  is  passed  hi  which  extended  cropping  between  the 
trees  is  possible,  and  the  burden  of  fruit  becomes  great/' 
Wheeler  advises,  "special  care  should  be  taken  to  apply 
an  abundance  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  annually,  and 
only  enough  nitrogen  from  legumes  or  fertilizers  to  insure 
adequate  foliage,  satisfactory  wood-growth,  and  abundant 
fruit-spurs.  For  this  purpose  a  suitably  compounded 
complete  fertilizer  may  be  employed.  If  legumes  are 
found  to  supply  enough  nitrogen  one  may  employ  annually 
from  200  to  600  pounds  an  acre  of  acid  phosphate  or  basic 
slag  meal,  and  from  50  to  400  pounds  an  acre  of  the  muri- 
ate or  high-grade  sulfate  of  potash.  If  the  double  manure 
salt  is  used  as  the  source  of  potash  instead  of  the  muriate 
or  the  high-grade  sulfate  of  potash,  the  total  application 
should  amount  to  approximately  twice  as  much  an  acre, 
because  of  the  lower  potash-content  of  the  latter. 

"The  nitrogen  for  the  orchard  may  be  supplied  in  one, 
or  on  light,  open  soils,  in  two  applications  of  nitrate  of  soda 
at  such  a  rate  that  the  total  application  for  a  season  will 
not  exceed  from  100  to  300  pounds  an  acre,  dependent 


Test  Plat  for  Apples  145 

upon  the  slowness  of  the  growth  of  the  trees.  It  is  usually 
much  simpler  to  make  a  single  application  of  a  complete 
fertilizer  in  which  the  nitrogen  is  present  in  nitrates,  ammo- 
nium salts,  soluble  organic  compounds  and  in  less  quickly 
available  organic  forms  than  to  apply  nitrates  at  two  or 
more  different  times.  When  such  complete  combinations 
are  used  the  danger  of  loss  by  leaching  is  greatly  lessened 
and  a  satisfactorily  continuous  but  properly  decreasing 
supply  of  nitrogen  for  the  trees  is  assured.  The  fertilizer 
application  should  not  be  made  later  than  just  after  the 
time  the  fruit  has  set.  Many  good  authorities  even  advise 
waiting  until  this  time  in  order  to  gage  the  application 
according  to  the  probable  yield  and  requirement  of  the 
trees." 

As  to  lime,  Wheeler  states  that  "apple  trees,  as  a  rule, 
respond  to  liming  rather  better  than  pear  trees;  neverthe- 
less, on  very  acid  soils  there  are  several  good  reasons  for 
liming  even  pear  trees.  An  occasional  application  of  mag- 
nesian  lime  may  be  desirable,  but  if  used  it  should  be 
alternated  with  applications  of  purer  lime." 

A  test  plat  for  apples. — Stewart  also  gives  advice  for 
"determining  the  actual  needs  of  an  orchard,"  or  for 
making  a  test : 

"The  general  fertilizer  formula  just  indicated  (page  143) 
is  for  use  only  until  the  exact  needs  of  the  particular 
orchard  can  be  determined.  In  other  words,  it  is  intended 
only  to  meet  the  immediate  demands.  If  in  the  meantime 
one  wishes  really  to  answer  the  question  of  how  to  fertilize 
his  own  orchard,  he  can  do  so  by  following  the  plan  out- 
lined in  the  following  table.  This  plan  is  especially  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  commercial  orchardists  and  to  'com- 
munity' tests  on  the  part  of  the  smaller  growers."  This  may 
require  some  work,  but  the  results  should  be  worth  it. 
J 


146  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

Plat  1. — Check  (unfertilized).  Pounds 

Plat  2. — Nitrate 2^ 

Dried  blood 3^ 

Acid  phosphate 10 

Plat  3.— Nitrate 2^ 

Dried  blood 3 }/% 

Potash 2 

Plat  4.— Acid  phosphate 10 

Potash 2 

Plat  5.— Check. 

Plat  6. — Nitrate 2^ 

Dried  blood 3^ 

Acid  phosphate 10 

Potash 2 

Plat  7.— Same  as  Plat  6,  plus  lime 12  to  25 

Plat  8. — Manure 400 

Plat  9.— Check. 

"The  quantities  are  pounds  for  a  mature  tree  in  bearing. 

"This  test  should  be  located  in  a  typical  part  of  the 
orchard,  and  should  include  not  less  than  five  average  trees 
of  the  same  variety  and  age,  in  each  plat.  All  the  trees 
should  be  labeled  and  carefully  measured  at  a  fixed  point 
on  the  trunk,  and  definite  records  of  their  growth  and 
yields  should  be  kept  for  at  least  three  years.  Frequently 
good  indications  of  the  orchard's  needs  may  be  obtained 
in  less  time  than  this,  but  at  least  this  time  should  be 
allowed  and  more  should  be  used  when  necessary." 

Peaches. — Wheeler  says  that  "peach  trees  are  less  in 
need  of  lime  than  apple  trees,  yet  liming  is  nevertheless 
often  desirable,  even  for  its  indirect  benefits.  The  fertilizer 
demands  for  peaches  are  much  greater  than  for  apples 
for  the  reason  that  the  trees  grow  far  more  rapidly  and 
bear  early  and  abundant  crops.  On  poor  soils  generous 
fertilization  must  be  provided  from  the  outset,  but  if  the 
land  is  very  rich  or  heavily  manured,  fertilizer  may  be 
omitted  for  the  first  year  or  two.  If  the  soil  is  very  poor, 


Fertilizers  for  Peaches  and  Others  147 

it  should  receive  at  the  outset  from  300  to  500  pounds  an 
acre  of  a  fertilizer  containing  a  moderate  amount 'of  nitro- 
gen derived  from  appropriate  materials,  a  fair  quantity  of 
available  phosphoric  acid,  and  a  generous  amount  of 
potash  in  muriate  of  potash.  On  soils  in  which  potash  is 
naturally  very  abundant,  the  supply  can  be  greatly 
lessened. 

"When  the  peach  trees  come  into  bearing,  more  nitro- 
gen will  be  required  .than  at  the  outset,  and  the  total 
quantity  of  fertilizer  may  then  be  increased  one-half,  or 
even  more  than  doubled.  In  the  case  of  peach  trees,  con- 
stant watchfulness  is  required  to  make  sure  that  neither^ 
too  little  nor  too  much  nitrogen  is  used.  An  excess  of  nitro- 
gen will  prevent  proper  ripening  of  the  fruit,  and  of  the 
wood  in  the  autumn,  whereas  too  little  will  mean  abbrevi- 
ated crops,  loss  of  vigor,  and  at  the  same  time  the  lack  will 
create  conditions  favorable  to  disease.  In  any  case,  ample 
supplies  of  phosphoric  acid  and  of  potash,  as  muriate, 
should  be  provided  to  meet  any  possible  need.  If  a  little 
extra  nitrogen  is  required  in  the  spring,  it  may  be  applied 
in  nitrate  of  soda,  or,  if  the  soil  is  properly  limed,  sulfate 
of  ammonia  may  be  substituted  for  the  nitrate  of  soda  if 
desired." 

Plums,  apricots  and  cherries  probably  require  about 
the  same  treatment  as  peaches  except  perhaps  not  so 
heavy,  although  sweet  and  sour  cherries  and  plums  are 
said  to  need  much  more  liming. 

Quinces  are  reported  as  responding  to  lime  in  about  the 
same  degree  as  cherries  and  plums. 

Grapes. — Field  experiments  by  the  New  York  (Geneva) 
Experiment  Station  gave  confusing  and  unsatisfactory 
results  not  only  with  commercial  fertilizers  but  with  stable 


148  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

and  green  manures.  Hedrick  sums  up  the  work  thus  far 
(Bull.  No.  381)  as  follows:  "From  the  data  obtained  in 
these  experiments  it  is  evident  that  the  fertilization  of 
vineyards  is  so  involved  with  other  factors  that  only  long- 
continued  work  will  give  reliable  results.  From  the  work 
done,  however,  several  suggestions  may  be  made  to  grape- 
growers: 

"First,  fertilizers  cannot  be  profitably  applied  in  vine- 
yards poorly  drained,  suffering  from  winter  freezes  or 
spring  frosts,  or  in  which  fungi  or  insects  are  uncontrolled, 
or  where  good  care  is  lacking. 

"Second,  it  is  probable  that  most  vineyards  have  a 
one-sided  wear,  there  being  few  plantations  indeed  where 
more  than  one  or  two  of  the  elements  of  fertility  are  lack- 
ing. Nitrogen  is  probably  most  frequently  the  element 
needed.  Each  grape-grower  should  try  to  discover  which 
of  the  food  elements  his  particular  soil  needs,  if  any. 

"Third,  maximum  profits  cannot  be  obtained  in  many 
vineyards  of  the  Chautauqua  belt  because  of  the  lack  of 
uniformity  in  vineyard  conditions.  Grape-growers  should 
strive  by  every  means  possible  to  secure  an  equally  vigor- 
ous and  healthy  growth  over  the  entire  area  cropped. 

"Fourth,  the  steps  to  be  taken  in  restoring  a  failing 
vineyard  are,  in  the  usual  order  of  importance,  (1)  give 
good  drainage;  (2)  control  insects  and  fungi;  (3)  improve 
the  tillage  and  general  care;  (4)  apply  such  fertilizers  as 
may  be  found  lacking." 

Wheeler  makes  the  following  general  statement: 
"Grapes  may  show  some  gain  from  the  use  of  lime  under 
certain  circumstances,  but  they  do  not  require  it  in  even 
approximately  the  same  degree  as  the  cherry,  plum,  cur- 
rant, and  gooseberry.  The  chief  need  of  this  crop  is  avail- 
able phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  If  nitrogen  is  used,  the 


Fertilizers  for  Berries  149 

quantity  must  be  carefully  regulated,  and  in  Europe  slow- 
acting  forms  of  organic  nitrogen  are  in  special  favor.  Basic 
slag  meal  or  bone-meal  may  be  used  as  sources  of  phos- 
phoric acid  when  the  grapes  are  set,  but  later,  superphos- 
phate is  to  be  preferred,  especially  if  it  is  not  most  thor- 
oughly worked  into  the  soil.  Sulfate  of  potash  is  often 
considered  preferable  to  the  muriate  of  potash  for  grapes, 
for  it  is  alleged  to  give  a  better  quality  of  fruit." 

Berry  bushes  respond  readily  to  the  fertilizer  treat- 
ments applied  to  general  field  and  garden  crops.  The  roots 
are  relatively  shallow  and  therefore  submit  to  surface 
tillage  and  applications,  and  the  life  of  the  plantation  is 
short  enough  to  allow  of  definite  tests  and  also  of  rotation. 
Wheeler  writes  that  "The  blackberry  is  especially  at  home 
on  very  acid  soils  and  a  very  light  application  of  lime  will 
meet  all  possible  requirements  of  the  plants,  if  indeed  it 
is  needed  at  all.  The  blackcap  raspberry  is  more  likely 
to  be  helped  by  liming  than  the  blackberry,  although  it  is 
well  adapted  to  moderately  acid  soils.  The  Cuthbert  rasp- 
berry is  appreciably  helped  by  liming  on  quite  acid  soils, 
and  the  same  is  probably  true  of  most  or  all  of  the  red  and 
yellow  varieties.  The  gooseberry  and  currant,  including 
the  white  and  various  red  varieties,  are  greatly  benefited 
by  liming.  As  much  as  two  to  four  tons  of  ground  lime- 
stone an  acre,  or  its  equivalent  of  slaked  lime,  are  often 
very  helpful  to  these  plants.  Raspberries,  in  particular, 
thrive  well  on  a  heavy,  freshly  rotted  sod,  as  for  example, 
on  old  grass  land  plowed  the  autumn  before  the  plants  are 
set.  In  many  cases  all  that  is  required  on  such  land  is  to 
supply  an  adequate  mixture  of  an  available  phosphate 
and  a  potash  salt,  but  whenever  the  cane-growth  is  weak 
and  unsatisfactory,  or,  when  gooseberries  and  currant 
bushes  do  not  show  satisfactory  growth,  a  moderate 


150  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

amount  of  complete  fertilizer  containing  a  fair  amount  of 
nitrogen  in  gradually  available  forms  is  likely  to  be  bene- 
ficial. The  use  of  heavy  applications  of  nitrogen  for  rasp- 
berries, currants  and  gooseberries  is  not  advised,  for  it 
will  induce  too  great  a  growth  of  canes  and  foliage  and 
interfere  with  the  maturing  and  ripening  of  the  fruit.  The 
plants  will  also  be  rendered  more  readily  subject  to  mildew." 

The  cranberry,  according  to  Wheeler,  "thrives  better 
at  the  outset,  even  on  certain  very  acid  soils,  than  after 
the  acidity  has  been  lessened  by  liming.  If  more  nitrogen 
is  needed  than  that  naturally  available  from  the  humus 
of  the  bog,  it  is  usually  recommended  that  it  be  applied 
in  small  quantities,  preferably  in  nitrate  of  soda,  although 
it  is  possible  that  sulfate  of  ammonia  may  sometimes 
answer  as  well;  and  nitrate  of  potash  may  even  be  pref- 
erable to  either.  The  chief  need  of  the  cranberry  vine  is 
usually  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  The  phosphoric  acid 
for  top-dressing  may  be  in  superphosphate,  but  if  applied 
just  before  the  plants  are  set  one  may  employ  bone-meal, 
or,  if  on  very  acid  peat  or  muck  soil,  even  raw  rock  phos- 
phate." When  the  soils  are  very  wet,  he  warns  against 
the  use  of  nitrates,  "owing  to  their  ready  reduction  to 
nitrites,  which  may  be  poisonous." 

"In  case  spring  applications  of  fertilizer  are  made,  it 
must  not  be  expected  that  they  will  always  affect  the 
cranberry  yield  of  that  season  so  much  as  the  yield  of  the 
crop  which  follows.  Such  applications  should  ordinarily 
be  made  after  the  water  is  drawn  off  and  the  land  has  dried 
out  to  a  reasonable  extent.  Some  growers  advise  applying 
the  fertilizer  just  after  the  crop  is  harvested,  but  if  nitro- 
genous fertilizers  are  used  spring  applications  are  better. 

Strawberries  give  quick  response  to  fertilizers,  manures, 
mulches  and  tillage.  They  may  be  likened  in  these  regards 


Fertilizer  for  Strawberries  151 

to  annual  crops.  The  special  requirements,  as  given  by 
Wheeler,  are  "moderately  acid  to  very  acid  soils,  and  if 
lime  is  used  the  application  should  be  light,  rarely  exceed- 
ing 1,000  to  2,000  pounds  of  ground  limestone  an  acre. 

"An  important  point  to  be  recognized  by  strawberry- 
growers  is,  that  weak  plants  are  not  likely  to  be  heavy 
bearers  the  next  year.  In  consequence,  the  plants  when 
set  should  be  supplied  with  a  fertilizer  reasonably  rich  in 
available  nitrogen.  This  fertilizer  should  usually  be  applied 
at  the  rate  of  1,000  to  1,500  pounds  an  acre  at  the  time  of 
setting,  and  in  the  later  years,  just  after  picking  the  crop 
of  fruit,  fertilizer  may  be  scattered  in  a  furrow  turned 
away  from  each  side  of  the  bed,  after  which  the  furrow  may 
be  turned  back  again.  Early  each  spring  fertilizer  should 
be  applied  broadcast  over  the  beds.  This  should  contain 
liberal  quantities  of  soluble  phosphoric  acid  and  potash 
but  only  enough  nitrogen  to  promote  reasonable  growth. 
This  nitrogen  should,  however,  be  largely  in  readily  soluble 
and  available  forms.  If  too  much  nitrogen  is  used  in  the 
spring  the  fruit  will  lack  color,  and  it  may  be  soft  and 
unsatisfactory,  especially  for  distant  shipment.  It  may 
even  be  necessary  to  omit  all  nitrogen  in  the  spring,  if  the 
soil  is  exceptionally  rich  in  humus  or  has  been  well  manured 
previously.  This  can  be  decided  only  by  the  observant 
grower. 

"On  many  soils,  superphosphate  is  preferable  to  basic 
slag  meal  as  a  source  of  phosphoric  acid  for  strawberries, 
for  the  reason  that  too  much  lime  is  to  be  avoided,  and, 
furthermore,  the  phosphoric  acid  is  largely  soluble  and 
better  adapted  to  top-dressing.  On  an  exceedingly  acid 
soil  the  use  of  basic  slag  meal  may  be  permissible  for  appli- 
cation at  the  time  of  setting,  for  the  action  of  the  soil 
aids  in  rendering  it  available  to  the  plants." 


152  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

How  to  apply. — In  general,  fertilizer  is  broadcasted  in 
fruit-plantations.  In  young  orchards,  it  may  be  applied 
near  the  trees  if  they  are  to  receive  the  immediate  or 
chief  benefit,  although  it  should  never  be  placed  against 
or  very  close  to  the  trunk.  Sometimes  it  is  applied  in 
drills  with  potatoes  or  with  other  catch-crops.  Usually  it 
is  preferable,  however,  to  treat  the  entire  area  for  the 
benefit  of  all  the  crops  that  are  to  be  produced. 

The  fertilizer  may  be  applied  in  autumn  or  in  spring. 
Old  trees  do  not  receive  the  benefit  of  surface  applications 
at  once,  and  if  the  roots  are  deep  and  the  soil  retentive 
they  may  never  receive  much  help  from  such  applications. 
Wheeler  states  that  "in  some  European  countries  the  fertil- 
izer for  orchards  is  placed  from  4  to  5  inches  deep  in  holes 
20  inches  apart,  at  the  rate  of  about  an  ounce  and  a  quar- 
ter in  each  hole.  This  method  is,  however,  probably  too 
expensive  to  employ  in  this  country,  although  it  may  be 
especially  effective  for  orchards  in  sod.  If  the  work  were 
capable  of  being  done  by  machinery  or  by  some  suitable 
implement  the  method  might  possibly  prove  of  economic 
value."  Materials  that  are  rich  in  nitrogen  should  be 
applied  cautiously,  if  at  all,  in  autumn,  at  least  before 
growth  ceases,  as  it  promotes  late  growth.  There  is  likely, 
also,  to  be  considerable  loss  of  nitrogen. 

The  general  unskilled  farmer  would  better  apply  ready- 
mixed  fertilizers.  As  the  fruit-grower  begins  to  under- 
stand his  problem,  however,  and  becomes  discriminating, 
he  will  find  himself  buying  the  separate  ingredients  and 
applying  them  as  he  thinks  best. 


' 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  PLANTS  AND  THE  PLANTING 

WE  now  come  to  the  concrete  and  interesting  work 
of  actually  making  the  fruit-plantation.  The  subjects  that 
one  naturally  considers  when  about  to  begin  the  planting 
of  a  fruit-area  fall  into  five  categories — the  choice  of  the 
varieties,  the  securing  of  the  trees  or  plants,  the  actual 
setting  of  the  stock,  the  laying  out  of  the  area,  and  the 
records  of  the  plantation.  These  matters  may  now  be 
considered,  the  two  last  in  the  succeeding  chapter. 

THE   CHOICE   OF  VARIETIES 

The  most  personal  problem  connected  with  the  actual 
making  of  a  fruit-farm  is  the  choice  of  varieties.  This  is 
the  one  subject  about  which  most  questions  are  likely  to 
be  asked,  and  also  one  on  which  little  specific  advice  can 
be  given  in  a  book.  The  choice  of  varieties  depends  pri- 
marily on  the  personal  preferences  of  the  grower,  the  pur- 
pose for  which  the  fruit  is  to  be  grown,  and  the  locality. 
Without  knowing  these  three  elements,  it  is  •  impossible 
for  any  person  to  give  satisfactory  direction  as  to  varieties. 
The  grower  who  has  no  personal  preferences  for  varieties 
has  not  yet  mastered  the  first  essential  to  successful  fruit- 
growing,— the  setting  for  himself  of  a  specific  ideal.  In  the 
greater  number  of  cases  one  may  answer  questions  on 
what  varieties  to  plant  by  asking  the  questioner  what  he 
wants  to  plant.  He  will  commonly  answer  his  own  ques- 
tion fully.  The  intelligent  question  about  varieties  is  that 

(153) 


154  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

which  asks  for  specific  information;  as,  for  example:  What 
is  the  best  red  fall  apple  for  southern  Ohio?  What  is  the 
earliest  raspberry?  What  is  the  hardiest  apricot?  What 
is  the  largest  plum?  What  is  the  best  strawberry  for  can- 
ing? Such  questions  as  these  indicate  that  the  questioner 
has  classified  his  own  ideas,  and  that  he  is  driving  straight 
to  the  point  for  information;  and  they  are  usually  capable 
of  rather  definite  answer. 

A  few  general  rules  or  precepts  may  be  stated  to  aid 
the  intending  fruit-planter  in  the  choice  of  varieties : 

1.  So  far  as  possible,  the  planter  should  follow  his 
personal  preferences, — the  type  of  fruit  he  likes  best  or 
in  which  he  takes  most  interest.  These  types  or  kinds  are 
the  ones  with  which  he  will  be  most  likely  to  succeed, 
other  things  being  equal. 

2.  He  should  develop  a  clear  and  specific  conception 
of  the  purpose  for  which  the  fruit  is  to  be  grown, — whether 
for  dessert,  for  canning,  for  a  local  market,  for  export, 
for  evaporating,  and  the  like.    Then  the  varieties  best 
suited   to  meet   these  desires  may  be   looked   up  and 
chosen. 

3.  The  planter  should  not  covet  a  variety  because  it 
is  eminently  successful  in  another  region.    Varieties  have 
distinct  adaptations  to  geographical  areas.    If  a  given 
variety  is  a  universal  success  in  the  plains  regions,  the 
probabilities  are  that  it  will  not  thrive  equally  well  in  New 
England.  The  farmers  of  the  East  have  learned  that  they 
cannot  compete  with  those  of  the  West  in  the  growing  of 
wheat,  and  they  should  know  that  one  region  may  not  be 
able  to  compete  with  another  in  some  particular  variety 
of  fruit,  even  though  the  variety  thrive  well  in  both.  It  is 
a  question  whether  the  northeastern  states  can  compete 
with  the  mid-western  states  in  the  growing  of  the  Ben 


Choice  of  Varieties  155 

Davis  apple.  The  South  and  mid-South  have  been  planted 
extensively  to  the  Kieffer  pear,  largely  because  it  thrives 
better  over  a  large  area  than  most  other  varieties.  It  is 
doubtful,  then,  whether  it  is  wise  to  plant  it  extensively 
in  the  North,  where  other  pears  will  thrive  that  do  not 
succeed  in  the  Kieffer  region.  Probably  in  every  state  or 
province  certain  varieties  are  considered  to  be  especially 
adapted  to  certain  regions,  as  the  Rome  Beauty  apple  to 
southern  Ohio.  Such  adaptations  should  be  considered. 
Any  region  should  grow  most  freely  that  type  of  fruit 
which  it  can  grow  best  and  which  other  regions  cannot 
grow  so  well.  The  lists  of  fruits  recommended  for  different 
regions  by  the  American  Pomological  Society  are  very 
suggestive  in  this  regard. 

4.  The  choice  should  consider  the  local  conditions,  as 
the  adaptation  of  the  variety  to  the  particular  climate,  to 
the  probable  length  of  season,  to  distance  from  market, 
and  to  the  system  of  husbandry.  The  adaptation  of  varie- 
ties to  soils  is  an  important  consideration,  and  one  that 
demands  closer  attention  as  cultivation  becomes  more 
intense  and  perfect;  but  the  question  is  yet  imperfectly 
understood,  except  perhaps  with  strawberries  and  few 
outstanding  varieties  of  other  fruits.   As  a  rule,  the  finer 
the  variety  in  quality,  the  less  able  it  is  to  thrive  equally 
well  under  diverse  and  particularly  under  careless  methods 
of  treatment.  It  is  partly  for  this  reason  that  dessert  fruits 
are  commonly  regarded  as  unreliable  and  difficult  to  grow. 
One  can  scarcely  hope  for  success  in  the  best  horticulture 
unless  he  gives  particular  study  to  the  adaptations  of 
species  and  varieties  to  soils. 

5.  One  should  seek  to  determine  the  best  varieties  for 
a  given  purpose  by  experimenting,  by  diligent  inquiry  of 
neighbors,  porno  legists,  nurserymen,  marketmen,  and  by 


156 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


keeping  in  touch  with  discussions  in  societies,  articles  in 
the  rural  press,  and  publications  of  institutions.  . 

6.  To  a  certain  extent,  one  may  improve  one's  varieties 
by  breeding,  particularly  in  the  fruits  that  bear  early  or 
young,  as  the  berries,  grapes,  and  even  peaches  and  plums. 
If  one  does  not  care  to  go  to  the  trouble  of  raising  seedlings 
of  known  parentage,  one  should  at  least  be  on  the  lookout 
for  interesting  variations,  and  should  exercise  discrimina- 
tion in  the  taking  of  cuttings  and  cions. 

Self-sterile  varieties. 

Choice  should  be  made  also  with  reference  to  inter- 
pollination.  It  is  known  that  some  varieties  of  fruits  are 
self-sterile, — that  is,  they  are  not  fruitful  with  their  own 
pollen  and  when  planted  alone.  This 
sterility  may  be  due,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  strawberry,  to  imperfect  (or  uni- 
sexual) flowers,  or,  more  commonly, 
to  pollen  that  is  impotent  on  the  pistils 
of  the  same  flower.  This  infertility 
or  self-sterility  is  largely  a  varietal 
characteristic,  yet  it  is  no  doubt 
modified  by  seasonal  and  environ- 
mental conditions.  It  is  probable  that 
varieties  may  sometimes  be  self -fertile 
and  at  other  times  self-sterile.  The 

FIG.  25.   Strawberry  ,  a  _..        _  _     ,  . , 

flowers  modified  by  strawberry  flowers  in  Fig.  25  show  the 
marked  influence  on  pollen -bearing 
that  is  exerted  by  different  conditions.  The  flowers  are 
of  the  same  variety,  and  were  grown  under  glass.  The 
lower  one  shows  the  small  development  of  stamens  in  a 
long  cloudy  spell,  and -the  upper  one  the  profusion  of 
stamens  that  appeared  in  other  flowers  after  a  few 


Self-sterility  157 

days  of  sunshine.  It  is  probable  that  pollen  is  more 
potent  in  some  years  than  in  others. 

There  is  yet  insufficient  positive  knowledge  of  the 
inter-pollination  of  fruits,  and  no  subject  connected  with 
pomology  is  in  greater  need  of  further  study.  We  know 
that  many  of  the  most  productive  orchards  are  of 
many  varieties,  and  that  some  varieties  sometimes  refuse 
to  fertilize  themselves.  The  most  positive  knowledge  on 
the  impotency  of  pollen  amongst  our  common  fruits  is  in 
connection  with  the  plums  of  the  Wild  Goose  type,  with 
sweet  cherries,  and  with  many  grapes.  The  safest  practice, 
in  all  fruits,  is  to  plant  only  a  few  rows  of  any  one  variety 
together  of  fruits  in  which  self -sterility  is  a  frequent  char- 
acteristic. The  chief  point  to  be  observed  in  choosing  the 
varieties  is  that  they  shall  bloom  together. 

Strawberries  often  lack  stamens  altogether,  while 
others  have  so  few  and  so  poor  stamens  that  they  are 
practically  self-sterile.  Ordinarily,  there  should  be  a  row 
of  a  perfect-flowered  variety  for  every  two  rows  of  a 
pistillate  or  infertile  variety  of  strawberry. 

Some  kinds  of  red  raspberries  are  only  partially  self- 
fertile,  and  should  therefore  be  grown  in  mixed  planta- 
tions. Cuthbert  is  apparently  strongly  self-fertile  and 
is  probably  a  good  pollinizer. 

The  early  experiments  in  this  subject  by  Waite  and 
others  gave  the  following  lists  of  self -sterile  and  self-fertile 
fruits : 

Pears. — Varieties  more  or  less  self-sterile. — Angouleme,  Anjou, 
Bartlett,  Boussock,  Clairgeau,  Clapp,  Columbia,  De  la  Chene, 
Doyenne  Sieulle,  Easter,  Gansel  Bergamotte,  Gray  Doyenne, 
Howell,  Idaho,  Jones,  Kieffer,  Lawrence,  Louise  Bonne,  Mount 
Vernon,  Pound,  Sheldon.  Souvenir  du  Congres,  Superfin,  Wilder, 
Winter  Nelis. 

Varieties  usually  self-fertile. — Bosc,  Brockworth,  Buflum,  Diel, 


158  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

Doyenne  d'Alengon,  Flemish  Beauty,  Heathcote,  Le  Conte,  Manning 
Elizabeth,  Seckel,  Tyson,  White  Doyenne. 

Apples. — Varieties  more  or  less  self-sterile. — Bellflower,  Chenango 
(Strawberry),  Gravenstein,  Tompkins  King,  Northern  Spy,  Norton 
Melon,  Primate,  Rambo,  Red  Astrachan,  Roxbury  (Russet),  Spitzen- 
burg,  Tolman  (Sweet),  Willow  Twig,  Winesap. 

Varieties  mostly  self-fertile. — Baldwin,  Ben  Davis,  Codlin,  Falla- 
water,  Rhode  Island  Greening,  Oldenburg,  Rail  Janet,  Red  Astrachan, 
Smith  Cider. 

Plums. — Varieties  more  or  less  self -sterile. — Coe  Golden  Drop, 
French  Prune,  Italian  Prune,  Marianna,  Miner,  Ogon,  Peach, 
Satsuma,  Wild  Goose  and  many  other  native  plums. 

Varieties  mostly  self-fertile. — Burbank,  Bradshaw,  De  Soto, 
Green  Gage,  Lombard,  Robinson,  Damsons. 

"The  quince  seems  to  fruit  nearly  as  well  with  its  own  pollen 
as  with  that  of  another  variety." — Waite. 

Grapes  (Beach). — Unfruitful  (or  usually  so)  when  planted  by 
themselves. — Black  Eagle,  Brighton,  Eumelan,  Massasoit,  Wilder, 
Gaertner,  Merrimac,  Requa,  Aminia,  Essex,  Barry,  Herbert,  Salem. 

Able  to  set  fruit  of  themselves. — Concord,  Diamond,  Niagara, 
Winchell  or  Green  Mountain,  Rogers'  Nos.  13,  24,  and  32,  Agawam, 
Delaware. 

Some  of  the  self -sterile  varieties  mentioned  have  fruited 
well  when  planted  with  pollinizers  as  follows:  Bartlett 
with  Nelis,  Flemish,  Easter;  Kieffer  with  Le  Conte,  Garber; 
Coe  Golden  Drop  with  French  Prune,  Fellenburg;  Sat- 
suma with  Abundance,  Burbank,  Red  June;  Miner  with 
De  Soto,  Forest  Rose,  Wild  Goose;  Wild  Goose  with  De 
Soto,  Newman,  Miner. 

Fletcher  finds  that  self-sterility  is  the  rule  in  Kieffer  and 
Bartlett  pears.  For  planting  with  Bartlett,  the  Anjou, 
Lawrence,  Duchess  and  Kieffer  were  good  pollinizers, 
although  in  some  seasons  Bartlett  and  Kieffer  do  not  bloom 
simultaneously.  For  planting  with  Kieffer,  the  LeConte, 
Garber,  Lawrence,  Bartlett,  Duchess,  Anjou  and  Clairgeau 


Self -sterility  159 

were  satisfactory,  although  in  some  years  the  bloom  of  some 
of  these  may  not  be  simultaneous  although  it  overlaps. 

Grapes  of  the  muscadine  type  are  strongly  self-sterile, 
having  imperfect  flowers.  (Cf.  Reimer  and  Detjen,  Bull. 
No.  209,  N.  C.  Exp.  Sta.)  Beach  finds  (Bull.  No.  223,  N.Y. 
Exp.  Sta.)  that  varieties  of  grapes  self-sterile  or  nearly  so 
have  shown  about  as  little  ability  to  fertilize  other  self- 
sterile  sorts  as  they  have  to  fertilize  themselves;  and 
also  they  have  usually  failed  to  fertilize  self-fertile  varie- 
ties. Indications  were  found,  however,  that  the  pollen  in 
some  instances  is  not  altogether  impotent,  but  that  its  own 
pistils  are  less  congenial  than  those  of  some  other  varieties. 
Further  investigation  is  needed  to  learn  whether  this  self- 
sterility  is  because  the  pollen  is  deficient  in  amount,  is 
not  well  developed,  or  is  uncongenial  to  its  own  variety. 

For  Oregon  conditions,  Lewis  and  Vincent  have  found 
(Bull.  No.  104)  gains  in  size  of  fruit  of  self-fertile  apples 
to  result  from  crossing,  as  well  as  marked  benefits  from 
crossing  self-sterile  kinds.  Of  eighty-seven  varieties  of 
apples  under  test,  fifty-nine  varieties  were  found  to  be 
self-sterile,  fifteen  varieties  self-fertile,  and  thirteen  varie- 
ties partially  self-fertile.  "Many  varieties  of  apples 
naturally  tend  to  be  self-sterile,  when  limited  to  their  own 
pollen.  Results  indicate  that  cross-pollination  is  the  rule 
and  self-pollination  the  exception.  In  some  instances  the 
immediate  effects  of  pollen  on  the  color  of  the  fruit  were 
perceptible.  With  an  increase  in  the  weight  of  the  crossed 
apple,  there  was  a  proportional  increase  in  the  weight  of 
the  seeds.  The  action  of  foreign  pollen  on  the  Yellow  New- 
town,  a  self-fertile  variety,  was  very  pronounced.  Many  of 
the  self-fertile  varieties  of  apples,  when  self-pollinated, 
were  found  to  be  seedless,  or  devoid  of  plump  seeds.  Wind 
is  a  poor  agent  in  transferring  pollen  from  tree  to  tree. 


160  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

Bees  and  insects  appear  to  be  the  principal  pollen 
distributers.  Climatic  conditions  influence,  to  a  certain 
degree,  the  relative  blooming  periods  of  the  different  kinds 
of  fruits.  In  frosty  localities,  varieties  can  be  selected  with 
reference  to  their  time  of  blooming,  thus  partially  elimi- 
nating the  difficulty  of  a  failure  of  fruit.  We  found  that 
pollen  was  capable  of  maintaining  its  viability  for  three- 
weeks,  provided  it  was  not  allowed  to  ferment.  The  length 
of  time  different  kinds  of  fruit  remain  in  blossom  at  this 
station  are  as  follows:  Apples  thirteen  days,  pears  eleven 
days,  and  cherries  ten  days." 

In  a  conclusive  study,  Gardener  has  found  that  all 
Oregon  varieties  of  sweet  cherries  are  self-sterile,  although 
in  all  cases  the  pollen  germinates  in  nutrient  solutions. 
He  also  found  that  many  varieties  are  inter-sterile;  thus, 
Bing,  Lambert  and  Napoleon  planted  together  with  no 
other  variety  are  all  sterile,  although  Black  Republican 
and  Black  Tartarian  will  fertilize  each  of  them.  Sour  cher- 
ries do  not  seem  to  be  self-sterile  so  far  as  preliminary 
studies  in  New  York  indicate. 

It  is  not  yet  known  how  constant  in  different  regions 
or  under  unlike  conditions  are  the  attributes  of  self-fertility 
and  self -sterility  in  varieties  of  fruits,  or  how  much  of  the 
barrenness  of  orchards  may  be  due  to  impotency  of  pollen. 
Some  cases  of  barrenness  attributed  to  this  cause  may  be 
due  to  other  and  unrecognized  deficiencies.  Some  of  it  is 
attributable  to  frost  or  wind  at  blooming  time,  to  neglect 
and  other  causes.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  impotency 
or  inefficiency  of  pollen  is  one  of  the  prime  factors  in  fruit 
failures,  and  it  should  be  taken  into  account  in  all  orchard 
plans  by  avoiding  solid  blocks  of  varieties.  It  is  safer  to 
plant  not  more  than  five  or  six  rows  of  one  variety  together 
unless  the  variety  is  known  to  be  abundantly  self-fertile. 


Score-card  for  Varieties 


161 


Scoring  the  varieties. 

If  the  grower  puts  the  points  of  excellence  in  tabular 
or  organized  form,  he  may  then  scale  or  score  the  merits  or 
demerits  of  a  given  variety;  he  may  need  to  inquire  of 
those  who  are  well  acquainted  with  the  variety,  if  he  does 
not  have  personal  knowledge  of  it,  before  he  is  able  to 
score  or  grade  it  intelligently.  Sears  has  made  a  useful  score- 
card  (Agric.  of  Mass.,  1909,  p.  44)  for  commercial  apples: 

SCORE-CARD  FOR  A  COMMERCIAL  VARIETY  OF  APPLES 


General  market 

Special  market 

TREE 

40 

35 

1.  Heavy  bearer  

20 

15 

2.  Early  bearer  

10 

10 

3.  Healthy  and  vigorous  

10 

10 

FRUIT 

40 
60 

35 
65 

4.  Fair  size 

10 

5 

5.  Good  color 

20 

15 

6.  Good  quality  .  .      .  . 

12 

30 

7.  Keeps  well  

10 

10 

8.  Ships  well  

8 

5 

100          60 

100       65 

Applying  score-card  points  to  apples  for  Massachu- 
setts, Sears  makes  tables  contrasting  the  desirable  and  the 
undesirable,  four  cf  which  are  given  by  way  of  illustration: 


BALDWIN 


Good  points: 

1.  Well  known. 

2.  Long-lived  tree. 

3.  Good  bearer. 

4.  Uniform  grade  of  fruit. 

5.  Good  color. 

K 


Bad  points: 

1.  Rather  slow  in  coming  into 

bearing. 

2.  Overbears  in  alternate  years. 

3.  Not  high  quality. 

4.  Cankers. 


162  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

RHODE  ISLAND  GREENING 

Good  points:  Bad  points: 

1.  Well  known.  1.  Sometimes  scalds  in  storage. 

2.  Productive.  2.  Color. 

3.  Good  quality.  3.  Scabs. 

4.  Fine  cooker.  4.  Not  so  hardy  as  Baldwin. 

WEALTHY 

Good  points:  Bad  points: 

1.  Bears  very  early.  1.  Drops  badly. 

2.  Hardy  tree.  2.  Ripens  unevenly. 

3.  Good  quality. 

4.  Uniform  grade. 

5.  Good  color. 

GRAVENSTEIN 

Good  points:  Bad  points: 

1.  Fine  quality,  cooking  and          1.  Shy  or  biennial  bearer. 

eating.  2.  Winter-kills. 

2.  Handsome  appearance.  3.  Collar  rot,  rank  grower. 

3.  Tree  needs  little  pruning.  4.  Fades  in  storage. 

4.  Well  known.  5.  Sun-scald  and  canker. 


How  did  the  varieties  of  fruits  originate? 

Systematic  breeding  has  not  yet  made  very  extensive 
contributions  to  fruit-culture,  although  many  interesting 
experiments  are  now  maturing.  The  importance  of  being 
on  the  lookout  for  choice  chance  seedlings  is  as  great  as 
ever.  It  may  be  well  to  consider  how  the  existing  varieties 
of  fruits  have  come  into  our  practice. 

It  seems  to  be  next  to  impossible  to  enlighten  the 
public  mind  on  this  question,  for  whatever  detailed 
explanation  one  may  give  seems  to  leave  the  questioner 
still  unsatisfied  and  perhaps  uninformed.  The  real  cause 
of  this  dissatisfaction  is  that  persons  assume  that  there 
is  something  mysterious  about  the  process  of  the  origi- 


Origin  of  Varieties  163 

nation  of  varieties;  and  so  long  as  the  mind  makes  a  mys- 
tery of  a  subject  it  is  impossible  to  elucidate  the  subject. 
We  have  also  been  taught  that  like  produces  like,  and 
therefore  that  any  unlikeness  between  two  plants — as 
between  the  parent  and  its  offspring — calls  for  instant 
explanation.  The  fact  is,  that  it  is  not  in  the  nature  of 
domestic  productions  for  like  to  produce  like,  but  rather 
for  similar  to  produce  similar.  That  is,  there  are  certain 
type  or  family  characteristics  that  pass  over  to  the  off- 
spring, but  there  are  normally  very  many  unlikenesses 
in  the  details.  Apples  give  rise  to  apples,  and  sometimes 
there  is  a  closer  reproduction  of  the  parent  in  tribes  like 
the  Fameuse  apples  and  the  Crawford  peaches;  but  there 
is  seldom  or  never  an  exact  duplication  of  parental  fea- 
tures. Considering  that  this  is  the  rule  in  nature,  the 
wonder  is  that  plants  should  ever  reproduce  the  variety 
with  approximate  exactness.  In  other  words,  rigidity  of 
generation  may  be  the  thing  to  be  explained  rather  than 
the  elasticity  of  it.  In  kitchen-garden  vegetables  this 
rigidity  has  come  about,  but  it  is  the  direct  result  of  a  long 
effort  at  selection  and  breeding  until  the  elasticity  of  the 
type  has  been  largely  bred  out.  In  the  vegetables,  invari- 
ableness  has  been  bred. 

Those  persons  who  are  always  wondering  how  the 
varieties  of  fruits  have  come  should  consult  the  records. 
History  is  capable  of  enlightening  them.  If  the  origins  are 
traced,  it  will  be  found  that  in  the  greatest  number  of  cases 
the  variety  was  simply  discovered,  and  that  some  one 
began  to  propagate  it  because  he  thought  it  to  be  good.  A 
tree  springs  up  along  a  roadside,  in  the  fence-row,  back  of 
the  barn,  in  a  thicket,  and  bears  acceptable  fruit.  It  is  the 
product  of  a  chance  seed  dropped  by  a  bird  or  thrown  there 
by  an  urchin.  A  thousand,  perhaps  ten  thousand,  seeds 


164  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

produce  trees  that  bear  poor  or  indifferent  products 
when  only  one  bears  superior  fruit.  This  one  good  tree 
is  cherished,  and  all  the  others  are  forgotten,  or  perhaps 
are  never  seen;  and  then  we  wonder  why  so  many  more 
good  varieties  originate  in  the  half-wild  places  than  in  the 
garden.  It  is  only  because  more  seeds  have  been  sown 
there,  and  as  we  do  not  covet  the  ground,  the  failures  pass 
unnoticed.  If  we  should  secure  the  same  results  in  the 
garden  by  the  sowing  of  only  half  the  number  of  seeds,  we 
should  consider  the  experiment  to  be  a  costly  one.  It  is 
probable  that  a  seed  will  produce  the  same  character  of 
fruit,  whether  the  tree  springs  up  in  a  fence-row  or  in  the 
garden;  and  the  half -wild  areas  are,  therefore,  most  useful 
and  prolific  places  in  which  to  allow  nature  to  carry  out 
her  various  kinds  of  plant-breeding.  And  if  man  has 
been  willing  to  be  relieved  of  all  effort  in  the  matter,  it  is 
fair  to  assume  that  he  will  long  continue  of  the  same  mind, 
and  that  this  exploration  for  new  varieties  will  be  a  passion 
of  the  adventurer  until  every  copse  and  tangle  has  been 
razed  into  cultivated  fields. 

It  is  not  the  province  of  the  pyesent  book  to  discuss 
the  fundamental  reasons  why  plants  vary  and  new  forms 
arise.  These  reasons  are  obscure  at  best,  but  the  greater 
part  of  them  are  probably  not  past  finding  out.  It  is 
enough  for  this  occasion  to  say  that  nearly  all  the  varieties 
of  fruits  were  seedlings  found  in  some  waste  place,  or  in  a 
nursery  row  or  a  garden;  and  they  were  propagated. 

THE    SECURING   OF   THE   PLANTS 

It  is  first  necessary,  in  choosing  the  plants  for  fruit- 
grounds,  to  determine  what  first-class  stock  is.  The  nur- 
seryman contends  that  he  grows  the  varieties  that  the 


The  First-class  Tree  165 

planters  want — those  for  which  there  is  a  demand.  In 
fact,  however,  he  largely  forces  the  demand  by  magnify- 
ing the  value  of  varieties  that  are  good  growers  in  the 
nursery.  The  nurseryman's  business  ends  with  the  grow- 
ing of  the  young  tree,  and  the  tree  that  makes  the  straight- 
est,  most  rapid  and  cleanest  growth  is  the  one  that  finds 
the  readiest  sale.  But  it  by  no  means  follows  that  the 
variety  which  is  the  cheapest  and  best  for  the  nurseryman 
to  grow  is  the  best  for  the  fruit-grower  to  plant.  Probably 
every  apple-grower  is  now  ready  to  admit  that  the  Bald- 
win has  been  too  much  planted,  while  Canada  Red  and 
various  other  varieties  that  are  poor  growers  in  the 
nursery-row  have  been  too  little  planted. 

The  blame  for  this  condition  of  things  does  not  rest 
wholly  with  the  nurseryman.  The  difficulty  lies  in  the 
fact  that  our  conception,  and,  consequently  our  definition, 
of  what  constitutes  a  first-class  tree  is  at  variance  with  the 
truth.  We  conceive  a  first-class  nursery  tree  to  be  one  that 
grows  straight  and  smooth,  tall  and  stocky,  whereas  we 
know  that  very  many — perhaps  half — the  varieties  of 
apples  and  pears  and  plums  will  not  grow  that  way.  In 
order  to  make  our  conception  true,  we  grow  those  varieties 
that  satisfy  the  definition,  and,  as  a  result,  there  is  a  con- 
stant tendency  to  eliminate  from  our  lists  some  of  the  best 
and  most  profitable  varieties. 

All  this  could  be  remedied  if  growers  were  to  be  taught 
that  varieties  of  fruit-trees  may  be  just  as  different  and 
distinct  in  habit  of  growth  as  they  are  in  kind  of  fruit,  and 
that  a  first-class  tree  is  a  well-grown  specimen  that  has  the 
characteristics  of  the  variety.  A  tree  may  be  first-class 
and  yet  be  crooked  and  slender,  if  it  is  the  habit  of  the 
particular  variety  to  grow  that  way.  The  emphasis  should 
be  placed  on  health  and  vigor,  and  not  on  mere  shape  and 


166  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

comeliness.  Why  may  not  a  nurseryman  give  a  list 
of  varieties  that  are  comely  growers,  and  another  list  of 
those  that  are  wayward  growers? 

It  is  usually  best  to  buy  first-class  trees, — those  of 
medium  size  for  their  age,  vigorous,  shapely  in  body  and 
head,  stocky,  with  clean  trunks  and  abundant  roots,  not 
stunted,  that  are  free  of  borers  and  other  injuries,  and,  in 
the  case  of  budded  trees,  those  in  which  the  union  is  very 
near  the  ground;  and  the  tree  should  show  the  natural 
characteristics  of  the  variety.  It  is  important,  also,  that 
trees  of  apples  and  pears  have  several  good  limbs  that  do 
not  arise  close  to  each  other;  for  the  main  scaffold  limbs 
of  a  mature  tree  should  be  some  distance  apart  to  avoid 
splitting.  In  dwarf  pears,  especially,  it  is  important  that 
the  stock,  to  be  first-class,  shall  be  budded  very  low.  It 
is  often  thought  that  large  size  is  of  itself  a  great  merit  in 
a  nursery  tree,  but  this  is  an  error.  Vigor,  cleanness, 
stockiness,  firm  hard  growth,  are  much  more  important 
than  bigness.  The  toughest  and  best  trees  are  usually 
those  of  medium  size.  The  very  small  extra  expense 
incurred  in  buying  the  best  trees  is  commonly  a  good 
investment.  It  is  often  said  that  second-class  trees  may 
be  chosen  with  good  roots  and  that  the  grower  can 
form  the  top  to  suit  himself.  This  requires  more  time 
and  care,  and  is  very  doubtful  economy;  and,  moreover, 
one  is  likely  to  lose  in  uniformity,  which  is  an  important 
feature  in  an  orchard.  In  an  acre  of  apple  trees,  the  differ- 
ence in  cost  of  first-class  over  second-class  trees  may  not 
be  more  than  a  dollar  or  two,  but  the  difference  in  results 
is  often  great. 

The  age  of  plants  at  purchase  must  be  governed  by 
circumstances  and  by  species.  The  general  tendency  is 
to  buy  trees  too  old  rather  than  too  young.  When  varie- 


Age  of  Nursery  Stock  167 

ties  are  new  and  scarce,  it  may  be  economy  to  buy  very 
young  stock.  Some  of  the  freer-growing  apples  and  pears 
are  large  enough  when  two  years  old,  if  grown  from  buds; 
but  these  fruits  are  usually  set  at  three  years  from  the 
bud  or  graft.  Dwarf  pears  may  be  set  at  two  or  three 
years,  preferably  at  the  former  age.  Quinces  are  set  at 
two  and  three  years.  Peaches  are  set  at  one  year  from 
the  bud;  plums  and  cherries  at  two  and  three  years. 
Strawberries  are  set  only  from  new  plants  (that  is,  those 
that  have  not  borne);  gooseberries  and  currants  prefera- 
bly from  two-year  stock;  raspberries  and  blackberries 
from  stock  not  more  than  one  season  old;  grapes  one  and 
two  years,  preferably  the  latter. 

One  does  not  save  time,  in  serious  orchard  work,  by 
buying  very  large  and  old  trees.  It  is  best  to  depend  on 
the  standard  sizes  and  ages  of  good  commercial  stock. 

Dwarfs  vs.  standards. 

Whether  standard  or  dwarf  trees  are  the  better  to 
plant,  is  a  personal  problem,  and  cannot  be  answered 
for  another  any  more  than  the  question  as  to 
whether  peaches  are  more  desirable  than  plums.  Dwarf 
apples  and  dwarf  pears  are  of  a  different  type  of  fruit- 
growing from  the  standards,  or  free  stocks,  and  the 
intending  grower  must  weigh  the  evidence  for  and 
against  as  best  he  can.  As  a  general  thing,  the  stan- 
dards are  the  safer  and  more  reliable;  but  persons  who  are 
willing  and  competent  to  give  the  extra  care  that  dwarfs 
need,  who  have  the  proper  location,  and  who  have  access 
to  extra-good  markets,  may  often  grow  the  dwarfs  with 
profit. 

The  growing  of  dwarfs  is  a  special  practice.  The  only 
fruits  that  have  regular  commercial  standing  in  this 


168  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

country  as  dwarfs  are  pears.  The  pear  is  dwarfed  by 
working  it  on  quince  stock.  Usually,  dwarf  pears  are  not 
profitable.  The  apple  is  dwarfed  by  working  it  on  apple 
trees  of  small  stature,  as  on  the  doucin  and  paradise 
races;  these  races  are  of  themselves  bushes  or  only  very 
small  trees.  There  are  no  other  well-recognized  dwarf 
fruits,  although  the  cherry  is  more  or  less  dwarfed  by 
working  it  on  the  mahaleb,  and  the  plum  by  working  it 
on  the  peach. 

The  general  fruit-grower  would  better  avoid  the  plant- 
ing of  dwarfs  for  commercial  purposes.  They  require 
more  care,  are  subject  to  more  difficulties  and  hindrances. 
It  is  only  when  they  receive  extra  attention  in  pruning 
and  otherwise  that  they  succeed.  They  may  be  used  as 
fillers  in  standard  orchards,  but  this  is  doubtful  policy. 
It  is  better  to  grow  them  by  themselves,  where  they 
can  receive  the  care  that  they  need.  They  may  not  bear 
profitably  much  in  advance  of  standards. 

Dwarf  apples  are  interesting  and  excellent  for  the 
home  garden,  where  one  wants  a  good  range  of  choice 
varieties  in  small  space.  The  extra  attention  that  they 
receive  in  spraying,  pruning,  thinning  and  otherwise, 
produces  fruit  of  excellent  size  and  form.  The  yield  to 
the  acre  is  not  large  for  the  capital  and  labor  invested. 
One  cannot  afford  to  grow  barrel  apples  on  dwarfs,  but 
only  the  choice  and  exceptional  varieties. 

Pedigree  plants. 

It  is  probable  that  trees  sometimes  fail  to  bear 
because  propagated  from  unproductive  trees.  We  know 
that  no  two  trees  in  any  orchard  are  alike,  either 
in  the  amount  of  fruit  they  bear  or  in  their  vigor 
and  habit  of  growth.  Some  are  uniformly  productive, 


The  Question  of  Pedigree  169 

and  some  are  uniformly  unproductive.  We  know,  also, 
that  cions  or  buds  tend  to  reproduce  the  permanent  char- 
acters of  .the  tree  from  which  they  are  taken.  A  gardener 
would  never  think  of  taking  cuttings  from  a  rose  bush 
or  a  chrysanthemum  or  a  carnation  that  does  not  bear 
flowers.  Why  should  a  fruit-grower  take  cions  from  a  tree 
that  he  knows  to  be  uniformly  unprofitable? 

Much  of  the  variation  in  fruit  plants  is  associated 
with  temporary,  local  or  fortuitous  conditions, — as  the 
character  of  the  land  in  the  spot  where  the  plant  stands, 
the  exposure,  injuries  it  may  have  received;  such  modi- 
fications are  probably  not  perpetuated  in  the  cions.  Trees 
propagated  from  heavy-bearing  parents  cannot  be  expected 
to  give  good  results  if  they  are  grown  under  neglect;  and 
undoubtedly  trees  grafted  from  unproductive  parents 
may  be  made  to  outyield  their  ancestry  if  given  excep- 
tional care.  And  yet  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  parent- 
age counts  even  in  bud-propagation.  The  question  is  diffi- 
cult of  determination  because  many  factors  enter  into  it  and 
every  generation  of  plants  is  grown  under  its  own  condi- 
tions. Other  things  being  equal,  pedigree  stock  is  to  be 
preferred;  but  there  always  remains  the  question  as  to 
whether  the  pedigree  means  anything  in  any  particular 
case. 

Stocks. 

The  tree-fruits  are  multiplied  by  grafting  and  budding. 
The  tree  (or  root)  on  which  they  are  grafted  is  the  stock. 

In  most  of  the  fruits,  one  may  have  a  choice  of  stocks, 
and  this  requires  some  knowledge  of  them.  In  the  pur- 
chase of  nursery  trees,  however,  one  does  not  know  the 
particular  stock,  and  the  goods  are  commonly  purchased 
without  reservation  or  requirement.  In  practice,  planters 


170  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

concern  themselves  very  little  with  the  kind  of  stocks  on 
which  their  trees  are  worked. 

The  stock,  because  of  its  naturally  small  stature, 
may  dwarf  the  tree  (see  page  168) ;  some  stocks  are  par- 
ticularly adapted  to  given  soils;  others  escape  certain 
injuries;  others  make  poor  or  short-lived  union  with  the 
cion  or  top. 

The  apple  is  budded  or  grafted  on  French  crabs, 
which  are  apple  seedlings  imported  from  Europe,  or  on 
seedlings  grown  from  American  cider-mill  seeds.  The 
American  stocks  are  raised  mostly  in  the  Middle  West, 
and  are  often  preferred  to  the  foreign  stocks,  but  most 
nurserymen  seem  to  prefer  the  imported  stocks.  If  it  is 
desired  that  the  apple  trees  shall  be  dwarf,  they  are  worked 
on  stocks  that  themselves  never  make  large  trees,  as  the 
doucin  and  paradise  types;  these  stocks  are  imported 
from  Europe. 

In  severe  northern  climates,  apples  are  worked  on 
seedlings  of  Russian  apples,  and  also  on  Siberian  crab. 

Pears  are  grown  on  imported  French  seedlings.  The 
supply  of  pear  seed  is  so  limited  in  this  country  that 
growing  the  seedlings  on  an  adequate  scale  cannot  be 
attempted;  and  the  risk  from  pear-blight  is  also  too  great. 

The  peach  is  adapted  to  a  variety  of  stocks.  It  is 
preferable  to  have  peach  on  peach  stocks,  in  most  cases; 
but  the  peach  root  is  specially  liable  to  root-knot  far  south 
and  another  stock  may  be  necessary  in  that  case,  and  plum 
may  be  used, — the  Marianna  probably  being  best  for 
light  lands.  The  myrobalan  plum  is  used  for  peach  stock, 
but  has  a  dwarfing  effect,  and  it  is  not  suited  to  all 
varieties.  There  is  a  choice  even  of  peach  stocks,  it  being 
considered  that  seedlings  from  southern  pits  are  better 
than  those  from  the  northern  canneries. 


Stocks  for  Fruit-trees  171 

Plums  may  be  worked  on  peach  for  light  soils.  There 
are  several  kinds  of  plums  used  as  stocks,  and  there  is 
much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  their  merits.  Seedlings 
of  the  common  orchard  plum  are  probably  to  be  preferred, 
except  that  the  varieties  of  native  plums  should  be 
grown  on  native  or  wild  stock.  The  myrobalan  is  much 
used,  but  is  probably  inferior.  French  stocks  of  the  St. 
Julien  type  are  also  imported  to  some  extent. 

There  are  two  prevailing  cherry  stocks,  the  mazzard 
and  mahaleb.  The  latter  is  much  used  by  nurserymen 
because  of  its  cheapness  and  ease  of  working,  but  it  is 
inferior.  Sour  cherries  are  likely  to  be  very  unsatis- 
factory on  mahaleb.  The  native  dwarf  or  sand  cherry  is 
used  to  some  extent  in  the  northern  plains  region  as  a 
very  hardy  stock;  it  also  has  a  dwarfing  effect. 

There  has  been  little  critical  study  of  the  hardiness  of 
the  different  stocks.  Chandler,  however,  reports  that 
"roots  of  the  French  crab  used  as  a  stock  seem  to  be 
more  tender  than  roots  which  come  from  cions  of  an  aver- 
age variety  of  apple.  Marianna  plum  roots  are  certainly 
more  hardy  than  myrobalan  roots,  and  mahaleb  cherry 
roots  seem  slightly  more  hardy  than  mazzard  roots." 

Stock  for  top-working. 

If  one  is  to  plant  hardy  stocks  and  then  work  them 
over  with  selected  cions,  he  should  usually  plan  to  graft 
or  bud  them  after  they  have  stood  in  the  orchard  one 
year.  Good  results  sometimes  follow  grafting  in  the  very 
year  in  which  the  stock  is  set,  but  this  is  the  exception. 

Some  persons  have  proposed  to  sow  seeds  in  the  very 
spot  where  the  trees  are  to  stand,  and  thereby  to  raise 
stocks  for  top-working  without  transplanting  them;  but 
the  labor  and  uncertainty  of  the  method  make  it  imprac- 


172  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

ticable.  It  is  cheaper  to  grow  trees  in  the  nursery-row — 
the  same  as  it  is  cheaper  to  buy  trees  of  a  nurseryman 
than  to  attempt  to  grow  them — and  the  trees  also  receive 
better  care.  Again,  seedlings  vary,  and  the  poor  and  weak 
ones  should  be  discarded  the  same  as  they  are  discarded 
by  the  budder  in  the  nursery-row  who  finds  them  to  be 
too  small  or  too  scrawny  to  bud.  Well-grown  stock  of 
a  strong-growing  variety  usually  gives  more  uniform 
results  than  a  lot  of  home-grown  seedlings. 

Stocks  for  reworking  are  sometimes  employed  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  straight  and  strong  bodies  for  weak 
and  poor  growers,  as  for  the  Canada  Red  and  Jefferis 
apples.  Any  straight,  vigorous,  free-growing,  hardy  stock 
may  be  chosen.  In  the  northeastern  states,  Northern 
Spy  is  much  used  for  this  purpose. 

Buying  the  trees. 

It  is  best,  when  it  can  be  done,  to  order  trees  late  in 
summer  or  early  in  autumn.  Buy  where  the  best  trees 
can  be  obtained,  and  where  there  is  good  reason  to  expect 
reliable  stock  and  honest  dealing.  It  is  usually  advisable 
to  buy  at  the  nearest  nursery  at  which  the  desired  stock 
can  be  secured,  for  the  buyer  has  more  personal  knowledge 
of  the  nurseryman,  he  can  visit  the  nursery,  he  saves 
freight,  and  he  may  be  able  to  secure  his  stock  in  fresher 
condition;  but  trees  of  equal  excellence  thrive  equally  well 
when  transported  from  long  distances,  if  they  arrive  at 
their  destination  in  equally  good  condition.  Southern- 
grown  stock  gives  good  results  in  the  North  if  it  is  strong, 
healthy  and  well-matured. 

Nursery  stock. should  never  be  purchased  simply  be- 
cause it  is  cheap.  Poor  stock  is  dear  as  a  gift.  Yet  farmers 
who  annually  plant  a  few  trees  and  who  buy  of  agents, 


How  to  Purchase  173 

often  pay  exorbitant  prices.  In  a  certain  town,  when 
farmers  were  paying  28  cents  each  for  peach  trees  in  lots 
of  a  dozen,  any  reliable  nursery  would  have  been  glad  to 
have  supplied  the  same  varieties  at  $18  a  hundred,  at  the 
nursery.  Plums  that  should  have  sold  for  15  cents  to  20 
cents  each  were  selling  to  farmers  for  50  and  60  cents. 
The  man  who  expects  to  plant  an  orchard  for  profit  will 
not  be  led  by  agents  into  any  glowing  scheme  or  into  the 
purchase  of  wonderful  varieties.  He  will  usually  buy  directly 
of  the  nearest  nurseryman  who  can  supply  the  desired' 
stock  and  varieties  at  the  prices  that  suit  him.  Some  nur- 
serymen employ  regular  and  reliable  agents,  and  such 
agents  carry  a  certificate  from  the  firm  they  represent. 
But  while  these  salesmen  may  be  perfectly  straight- 
forward, and  may  be  the  best  channels  through  whom  small 
orders  can  be  secured  by  those  who  are  uninformed  in 
pomological  matters,  all  persons  who  expect  to  go  into 
fruit-growing  seriously  should  buy  directly  of  the  nurseries. 
Yet  we  must  remember  that  the  tree  agent  has  been  one  of 
the  means  of  clothing  the  country  with  fruit  trees,  and 
thereby  of  adding  much  to  the  contentment  of  farm  life. 

The  buyer  should  make  up  his  mind  just  what  varieties 
he  wants,  and  then  find  the  nursery  that  has  them,  and 
order  early  enough  to  get  them.  There  is  then  no  occasion 
to  consider  the  vexed  question  of  substitution  of  varieties. 
If  the  varieties  are  not  in  market,  buy  stocks  of  some 
strong-growing  staple  variety,  and  after  these  are  estab- 
lished— usually  the  spring  or  summer  of  the  next  year — 
bud  or  graft  the  tops  to  the  desired  varieties. 

It  is  better  to  have  the  stock  delivered  in  autumn  and 
plant  it  or  heel  it  in  over  winter  than  to  trust  to  the  un- 
certainties of  spring  delivery  and  the  disadvantages  of 
cellared  stock. 


174  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

THE   SETTING   OF   THE   PLANTS 

Fruit  plants  sometimes  live  and  thrive  under  very 
careless  handwork  in  setting,  but  these  cases  are  excep- 
tions and  due  to  unusually  favorable  seasons  or  soil  condi- 
tions, and  they  are  not  to  serve  as  guides  to  practice.  The 
only  recommendable  procedure  is  one  of  care-taking  at 
every  stage  of  the  work. 

•When  to  plant. 

There  is  much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  relative 
merits  of  fall  and  spring  planting.  The  writer's  opinion  is 
that  fall  planting  is  generally  preferable  to  spring  planting 
on  thoroughly  drained  and  settled  lands,  particularly  for 
the  hardy  tree-fruits,  like  apples,  pears  and  plums;  and  if 
the  ground  is  in  good  condition  and  the  stock  well  matured, 
peaches  may  sometimes  be  set  in  October,  even  in  the 
northern  states,  with  success.  The  advantages  of  fall 
planting  are  several.  The  trees  become  established  in  the 
open  weather  of  autumn,  and  they  usually  make  a  start  in 
spring  before  the  ground  is  hard  enough  to  allow  of  spring 
planting.  This  early  start  means  not  only  a  better  growth 
the  first  season,  but,  what  is  more  important,  trees  that  get 
a  very  early  hold  endure  the  droughts  of  midsummer  much 
better  than  trees  planted  in  spring.  Planting  is  nearly 
always  better  done  in  the  settled  weather  and  workable  soil 
of  autumn  than  in  the  capricious  days  and  in  the  hurry  of 
springtime;  and  the  orchardist  is  free  to  begin  cultivation 
at  a  time  when  he  would  otherwise  be  planting  his  trees. 
Again,  it  is  commonly  better  to  buy  trees  in  the  fall, 
when  the  stock  of  varieties  is  full  and  when  the  best 
trees  are  yet  unsold;  these  trees  must  be  kept  until 
planting  time,  and  it  is  about  as  cheap  and  fully  as  safe 


The  Stripping  of  Trees  175 

to  plant  them  directly  in  the  field  as  to  heel  them  in  until 
spring. 

In  fall  planting,  however,  the  trees  must  be  thoroughly 
well  matured.  In  order  to  move  stock  quickly,  it  is  the 
practice  of  some  nurserymen  to  "strip"  the  trees  before 
the  growth  is  completed;  that  is,  the  leaves  are  taken  off, 
the  growth  stopped,  and  the  trees  are  put  on  the  market 
for  September  deliveries.  This  process  weakens  the  trees, 
and  many  failures  in  young  plantations  are  probably 
attributable  to  this  cause.  Such  trees  may  die  outright, 
especially  if  set  in  the  fall  and  a  hard  winter  follows;  or 
they  may  live  to  make  a  dwindling  growth  for  the  first 
few  years.  Like  early-weaned  calves,  they  lack  vitality 
and  push.  If  one  were  setting  an  orchard  in  autumn, 
one  should  place  the  order  for  trees  in  August  or  Septem- 
ber, if  possible,  with  the  express  stipulation  that  the  trees 
should  stand  in  the  nursery-rows  until  the  leaves  begin 
to  die  and  fall.  In  the  meantime,  the  land  should  be  fitted 
and  the  holes  dug,  so  that  when  the  trees  arrive  they  may 
go  directly  into  their  places  without  delay  or  without  the 
expense  of  heeling  them  in.  Trees  are  mature  enough  to 
dig  late  in  September  or  early  in  October  in  the  north- 
ern states,  depending  on  the  season,  soil  and  variety. 
When  the  tree  is  fully  mature,  some  of  the  leaves  will 
still  hold  on  the  vigorous  shoots,  and  these  are  stripped 
off;  but  this  stripping  does  no  harm,  for  the  young  growth 
is  then  mature  and  it  has  a  thick,  strong,  brown  appear- 
ance very  different  from  the  slender,  soft  and  green 
branches  of  early-stripped  trees. 

There  are  many  good  planters  who  consider  fall  plant- 
ing hazardous,  especially  in  the  North.  It  is  true  that 
unless  the  conditions  are  right,  spring  planting  is  the 
safer  course;  and  farmers  who  have  many  fall  crops  to 


176 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


harvest  will  also  probably  find  more  time  for  treersetting 
in  the  spring. 

If  trees  are  secured  in  autumn  for  spring  planting,  they 
should  be  heeled-in  on  well-drained  land  and  preferably 
where  the  snow  will  not  blow  off.  They  may  be  stood 
upright  in  furrows,  or  laid  down  (Fig.  26,  adapted  from 
Blake),  the  latter  preferred.  Open  the  bundles  and  place 


FIG.  26.  Peach  trees  pruned  and  heeled-in. 

each  tree  by  itself,  so  that  the  earth  will  lie  on  all  sides  of 
the  root.  Pack  the  earth.  It  is  well  to  cover  the  earth 
with  straw  or  bedding;  but  watch  must  be  kept  that  mice 
are  not  attracted  by  this  material,  for  they  are  likely  to 
gnaw  the  trees. 

Distance  apart. 

Fruit  plants  are  oftener  set  too  close  together  than 
too  far  apart;  in  fact,  the  latter  error  scarcely  exists. 
Trees,  especially,  are  wide  feeders,  and  the  best  results 
are  secured  when  each  tree  stands  far  enough  from  its 
neighbors  to  allow  it  to  possess  an  individuality  all  its 


Distance  for  Planting  177 

own.  An  additional  reason  for  sparse  planting  has  lately 
become  important, — the  necessity  of  spraying  for  insect 
and  fungous  pests ;  and  for  this  reason,  as  well  as  to  allow 
of  better  tillage,  the  outside  rows  should  not  be  set  close 
to  fences.  The  distance  at  which  trees  may  be  set  depends 
much  on  the  system  of  pruning.  If  heading-in  is  followed 
vigorously  and  systematically,  trees  may  be  set  a  third 
nearer  than  if  allowed  to  take  their  natural  form. 
Heading-in  should  always  be  practised  with  dwarf  trees, 
and  many  of  our  best  growers  pursue  it  regularly  with 
peaches,  plums  and  quinces.  Wide  planting  is  the  safer  rule 
for  the  generality  of  cases.  The  following  table  may  be 
supposed  to  represent  the  outside  average  limit  for  the 
planting  of  fruits  in  the  northeastern  states,  when  the 
plants  are  allowed  to  take  their  natural  form : 

Apples 35  to  45  ft.  each  way. 

Apples,  dwarf 10  to  15  ft. 

Pears,  standard 20  to  25  ft. 

Pears,  dwarf 12  ft.  to  1  rod. 

Quinces 1  rod. 

Peaches  and  nectarines  20  ft. 

Plums 20  ft. 

Apricots 20  ft. 

Cherries,  sour 20  ft. 

Cherries,  sweet . .  * 30  ft. 

Figs 20  to  25  ft. 

Pecans 40  ft. 

Grapes 6x8  to  8x10  ft. 

Currants 4x6  to  6x8  ft. 

Blackberries 4x7  to  6x9  ft. 

Raspberries 3x6  to  5x8  ft. 

Strawberries 1  x  3  or  4  ft.       [way. 

Cranberries 1  or  2  ft.  apart  each 

These  are  safe  distances.    In  certain  cases,  however, 
when  the  soil  is  strong  and  the  grower  makes  thorough 
L 


178  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

work  of-  tilling,  pruning  and  fertilizing,  these  distances 
may  be  reduced  somewhat  with  profit,  except,  perhaps, 
in  the  case  of  apples. 

Double-planting',  fillers. 

These  remarks  on  the  proper  distances  call  for  dis- 
cussion of  the  question  as  to  whether  it  is  good  policy  to 
plant  shorter-lived  trees,  as  peaches,  between  apples  and 
pears. 

The  trees  will  thrive  under  such  planting;  but  whether 
it  is  advisable  depends  on  the  man  and  the  economic  situ- 
ation. In  general,  it  should  be  discouraged;  but  if  the 
orchardist  gives  the  very  best  attention  to  fertilizing  and 
cultivating,  plantations  may  be  mixed  with  good  results 
(as  in  Fig.  27).  It  is  usually  best  to  plant  each  species 


FIQ.  27.  Double-planting. — Bush-fruits  between  orchard  trees. 

by  itself,  that  it  may  receive  its  own  treatment,  as 
peaches  in  a  peach  orchard,  apples  in  an  apple  orchard, 
and  quinces  in  a  quince  orchard. 

Another  form  of  double-planting,  now  much  in  the 
public  mind,  is  to   place   early-fruiting  varieties  of  the 


The  Question  of  Fillers 


179 


same  fruit  between  the  regular  rows,  with  the  idea  of 
securing  a  quicker  return.  These  "fillers"  are  to  be  removed 
as  soon  as  the  regular  plantation  requires  the  room.  For 
this  purpose,  Wagener  or  Ben  Davis  apples  may  be  planted 
as  fillers  in  an  orchard 
of  Baldwins,  Spys  or 
Greenings.  This  means 
more  care  and  expense 
in  tillage  and  other 
attention,  and  more 
fertilizing.  If  the  party 
is  an  intensive  fruit- 
grower, the  effort  may 
pay;  but  it  is  a  special 
practice  and  it  always 
carries  the  burden  of 
proof.  The  price  of  land 
and  labor  is  an  impor- 
tant factor.  It  will 
probably  pay  best  when 

i       j  •      r      •/  J          i.-  Fig.  28.  A  well-shaped  tree.    This  tree  was 

land  IS   limited  Or   nigh-     grown  in  an  orchard  without  fillers.    Compare 
,     T .  ,      ,  with  Fig.  29. 

priced.  It  may  be  better, 

in  a  given  case,  to  cover  more  land  and  expect  less  yield 
to  the  acre.  Only  the  best  cultivators,  with  sufficient  help 
and  equipment,  should  attempt  double-planting  of  fruit 
trees;  and  these  are  the  persons,  also,  who  will  see  that 
the  fillers  are  removed  at  the  proper  time. 

"Many  of  the  Connecticut  fruit-growers,"  says  Jarvis 
(Bull.  No.  62),  "have  the  necessary  intelligence  and  courage 
to  handle  successfully  an  orchard  on  the  filler  system.  But 
there  are  undoubtedly  some  who,  for  the  sake  of  earlier 
returns,  are  likely  to  favor  the  fillers  at  the  expense  of  the 
permanent  trees  and  for  the  sake  of  getting  one  or  two 


180 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


additional  crops,  are  likely  to  injure  seriously  the  shape 
of  the  trees  of  the  main  planting  (Figs.  28  and  29). 
The  growers  of  the  latter  class  are  advised  to  set  their 
trees  at  moderate  distances  and  to  grow  among  them 

some  kind  of  crop 
such  as  potatoes, 
corn  or  vegetables 
that  require  culti- 
vation during  the 
early  part  of  the 
summer.  Even 
then,  there  is  danger 
of  growing  these 
crops  too  near  the 
trees  and  of  not 
supplying  the  neces- 
sary plant-food  to 
make  up  for  that 
removed  from  the 
soil  by  the  second- 
ary crop." 

Speaking  for 
Washington  State 
conditions,  Thorn- 
ber  writes:  "Whether  or  not  it  is  advisable  to  use  fillers  in 
an  orchard  depends  entirely  upon  the  ability  of  the  planter 
to  remove  them  before  they  do  serious  if  not  permanent 
injury  to  the  trees.  Fillers  never  do  any  damage  in  an 
orchard  until  they  begin  to  contend  with  the  permanent 
trees  for  food,  moisture,  sunlight  or  space.  This  being 
true,  it  is  possible  to  grow  fillers  in  an  orchard  for  several 
years  and  do  no  injury,  and  at  the  same  time  harvest 
good  crops  of  fruit  that  will  help  maintain  the  necessary 


FIG.  29.  A  thirteen-year-old  apple  tree  injured 
by  leaving  fillers  in  the  orchard  too  long.  Observe 
the  long,  slender,  upright  branches. 


Fillers  in  Orchards  181 

expenses.  Many  growers  have  been  able  to  pay  for  their 
land  and  all  expenses  of  caring  for  the  orchard  by  means 
of  the  fruit  from  the  fillers  before  the  permanent  trees 
came  into  full  bearing."  Thornber  diagrams  "a  good 
planting  plan"  (Fig.  30)  in  which  the  fillers  are  placed  in 
the  rows  and  also  between  the  rows. 

Of  course  some  of  the  small-fruits  may  be  planted  in 

o     •     o     •     o     •     o 


0         •         0       t«         0        *         £) 

FIG.  30.  The  placing  of  fillers  (represented  by  dots)  between  the  permanent  trees. 

orchards  with  the  very  best  results.  Strawberries  are 
practically  an  annual  plant,  and  are  much  better  for 
orchards  than  is  any  kind  of  a  sowed  crop.  This,  however, 
belongs  with  the  cropping-scheme  for  orchards  rather  than 
with  the  subject  of  fillers. 

How  to  plant. 

Plow  the  land  and  fit  it  well.  As  all  orchards  should 
be  put  into  tilled  crops  for  at  least  the  first  two  years 
after  planting,  it  will  usually  be  found  advisable  to  plow 
the  entire  area  before  the  place  is  set,  rather  than  to  plow 
strips  where  the  trees  or  plants  are  to  go,  for  the  land  can 
then  be  better  shaped  with  reference  to  surface  drainage 
and  general  convenience. 


182  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

Trees  should  be  set  neither  in  dead-furrows  nor  on 
back-furrows.  Level  culture  should  be  adopted  from  the 
start,  unless  it  is  known  to  be  necessary  to  displace  surface 
water;  and  in  that  case  it  may  be  questioned  whether  the 
land  is  fit  for  fruit  plants.  In  all  ordinary  lands,  holes 
are  dug  by  hand  for  the  tree-fruits.  Plowing  out  a  deep 
furrow  in  the  line  of  the  rows  may  lessen  the  digging  and 
aid  in  getting  the  trees  in  line.  Peaches  on  light  lands  are 
often  set  in  furrows  made  for  the  purpose. 

The  hole  should  be  broad  and  ample;  and  the  harder 
the  soil  the  larger  ought  the  hole  to  be,  for  in  that  case 
the  loose  dirt  that  is  filled  in  must  give  the  tree  its  start. 
In  loose  and  deep  soils,  the  hole  need  be  no  larger  than  the 
spread  of  the  roots.  Chop  up  the  earth  in  the  bottom  of 
the  hole,  or  throw  in  a  few  shovelfuls  of  loose  surface 
earth. 

No  hardpan  should  be  left  immediately  under  the  tree. 
It  should  be  broken  by  heavy  tools  or  blown  out  with 
dynamite  (page  82). 

Trees  should  be  set  an  inch  or  two  deeper  than  they 
stood  in  the  nursery,  for  the  loose  earth  will  settle  and 
wash  away  in  the  course  of  the  season,  even  if  it  is  well 
packed  when  the  trees  are  set.  Dwarf  pears  should  be  set 
3  to  6  inches  deeper  than  the  bud.  The  roots  are  trimmed, 
as  explained  farther  on. 

Every  care  must  be  exercised  to  get  the  soil  thoroughly 
firmed  in  about  the  roots — which  are  straightened  out  in 
approximately  their  natural  position — and  especially 
under  the  crown  or  fork  of  the  roots,  in  order  that  no  air- 
spaces may  be  left  to  dry  out.  This  dirt  can  be  best  placed 
by  fingering  it  in,  moving  the  tree  gently  up  and  down  at 
the  same  time.  Once  or  twice  in  the  progress  of  filling  the 
hole,  the  earth  should  be  stamped  down.  Fill  the  hole  to 


Planting  the  Tree  183 

a  little  more  than  level  full  if  there  is  danger  from  surface 
water,  but  be  careful  that  no  hollows  are  left  close  about 
the  tree  into  which  water  can  settle,  especially  when  planting 
in  autumn.  Stamp  or  pack  the  earth  firmly  about  the 
tree  before  leaving  it,  for  the  double  purpose  of  securing 
moisture  and  of  holding  the  tree  against  winds.  Small 
stuff,  like  nursery  stock  and  small -fruit  plants,  may 
often  be  well  planted  by  means  of  a  dibber  or  spud.  All 
this  operation  of  planting  can  proceed  to  perfection  only 
when  the  earth  is  dry  enough  to  crumble.  Stock  should 
not  be  planted  in  wet  and  sticky  soil. 

If  trees  are  set  according  to  these  directions,  and  the 
tops  are  cut  back  as  explained  farther  on,  there  will 
rarely  be  any  necessity  for  staking  and  tying  the  trees  to 
keep  them  plumb. 

Mulches  of  straw  or  manure  are  sometimes  advised 
for  newly  set  trees.  For  trees  planted  late  in  spring  and 
in  droughty  lands,  a  light  mulch  about  the  tree  may  be 
advised;  but  in  other  cases  it  is  not  necessary.  If  mulches 
are  applied  to  fall-planted  trees,  care  must  be  taken  to 
tramp  them  down  well,  or  they  may  become  a  nesting- 
place  for  mice,  which  may  girdle  the  trees.  There  are 
those  who  favor  placing  a  forkful  of  manure  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  hole,  but  this  is  a  practice  of  doubtful  value; 
and,  at  all  events,  the  manure  should  be  well  mixed  with 
the  soil  to  prevent  drying  out.  There  is  often  discussion 
as  to  whether  it  is  desirable  to  place  the  mulch  on  the 
surface  or  to  place  it  an  inch  or  two  below  the  surface 
and  cover  it  with  earth.  No  positive  assertion  can  be 
made  for  either  method,  although,  of  the  two,  the  former 
is  probably  more  generally  advisable.  But  a  mulch  of 
tilled  earth  is  more  desirable  than  one  of  straw  or  manure 
in  general  fruit-planting. 


184  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

Puddling  the  roots  is  a  good  practice  when  trees  are 
to  be  shipped  any  distance  or  when  they  are  likely  to  be 
unduly  exposed,  and  it  is  a  common  practice  among 
nurserymen.  The  operation  consists  in  sousing  the  roots 
in  a  thin  mud  or  paste  of  clay. 

Trimming  the  trees. 

There  is  much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  best  way 
of  trimming  trees  when  they  are  planted.  So  far  as  the 
root  is  concerned,  it  is  advisable,  in  the  North,  to  cut 
away  only  those  roots  that  are  broken  or  badly  torn. 
These  should  be  cut  off  just  back  of  the  injury.  It  is  the 
custom  to  cut  off  the  ends  of  all  roots  of  the  size  of  a 
lead-pencil  or  larger,  for  a  clean  smooth  wound  is  sup- 
posed to  heal  more  quickly  than  a  ragged  one,  although  the 
experiments  at  the  Woburn  Experimental  Farms  (Eng- 
land) showed  that  bruises  and  rough  ends  healed  very 
rapidly  (Ninth  Kept.,  1908).  When  the  tree  is  planted, 
all  the  roots  should  be  straightened  out  to  nearly  or  quite 
their  normal  position.  If  it  is  found  that  one  or  two  roots 
run  off  to  an  inordinate  length,  they  may  be  cut  back  to 
correspond  somewhat  with  the  main  root-system. 

Perhaps  half  the  root-system  of  the  young  tree  is  left 
in  the  ground  when  it  is  dug.  It  is  therefore  evident  that 
the  top  should  be  cut  back  to  a  corresponding  extent.  In 
fact,  the  top  should  be  more  severely  shortened-in  than 
the  root,  because  the  root,  in  addition  to  being  reduced, 
is  also  dislodged  from  the  soil,  with  which  it  must  establish 
a  new  connection  before  it  can  resume  the  normal  activ- 
ities. Trees  that  carry  too  much  top  when  planted  may 
fail  to  grow  outright;  or  if  they  start,  they  are  likely  to 
be  overtaken  by  the  droughts  of  summer.  Even  if  they 
live,  the  growth  is  usually  small  and  uncertain,  and  the 


Trimming  the  Young  Tree 


185 


tree  may  fall  a  prey  to  borers  or  a  victim  to  high  winds. 
On  the  other  hand,  trees  may  be  trimmed  too  severely 
when  set.  Except  possibly  in  the  case  of  peaches,  it  is 
probably  unwise  to  trim  the  trees  to  a  mere  pole;  and  with 
peaches,  it  may  be  better  to  leave  spurs  with 
at  least  one  bud  than  to  trim  to  a  whip. 
There  should  be  a  number  of  fresh  bright 
buds  left  on  the  top,  for  these  are  the  points 
where  early  and  active  growth 
begins.  These  buds  are  on  strong 
branches.  If  they  are  removed, 
the  weaker  or  half-dormant  buds 
on  the  main  trunk  or  low  down  in 
the  crotches,  must  take  up  the 
work,  and  these  start  slowly  and 
often  feebly. 

There  are  two  general  methods 
of  trimming  the  tops  of  young 
trees  at  planting  time.  One  method 
cuts  back  all  the  branches  to  spurs 
of  one  to  three  buds;  or  some- 
times, particularly  with  dwarf  pears 
set  when  two  years  old,  the  side 
branches  may  be  cut 
entirely  away,  leaving 
only  the  buds  on  the 
main  stem  or  trunk. 
The  tree,  therefore, 
"feathers  out"  the 
first  season;  that  is,  it  makes  many  small  shoots  along 
the  main  trunk.  The  following  autumn  or  spring,  the  top 
is  started  at  the  desired  height.  Fig.  31  shows  a  peach 
tree  as  received  from  the  nursery,  and  Fig.  32  the  same 


FIG.  31.  Yearling  peach 
tree,  for  planting. 


FIG.  32.  Peach  tree 
pruned. 


186 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


tree,  trimmed  in  this  way,  ready  for  planting.  This  method 
is  the  one  usually  best  adapted  to  the  peach,  which  is 
always  set  when  one  season  old  from  the  bud;  but  for 
other  fruits  unless  the  trees  are  slender  and  without  good 
branchy  tops,  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  the  best  prac- 
tice. If  the  bodies  are  thought  not  to  be  stiff  enough,  this 
way  of  trimming  may  be  used  to  good  advantage.  The 
i  main  shoot  should  usually  be  headed 

back  in  this  as  in  all  styles  of  trim- 
ming, to  make  the  trunk  stocky. 

The  second  method  aims  to  start 
the  top  at  the  required  height  when  the 
tree  is  planted.  It  is  adapted  only  to 
strong  and  well-grown  stocks  that 
have  a  more  or  less  branching  and 
forking  top.  From  three  to  five  of  the 
best  branches  are  left,  and  these  are 
headed  back  to  a  few  buds  each.  Fig. 
33  shows  a  pear  tree,  trimmed  in  Fig. 
34,  and  the  illustration  may  be  con- 
sidered to  represent  a  good  example 
of  its  class. 

It  is,  of  course,  evident  that  there 
is  no  one  method  of  pruning  young 
trees  that  is  all  wrong,  nor  any  other 
that  is  all  right.  The  method  must 
always  be  modified  by  the  age  and 
shape  of  the  trees,  by  the  climate  (or 
part  of  the  country)  in  which  the 
plantation  is  set,  by  the  species  of 
plants,  and  especially  by  the  standard 
that  the  grower  has  set  for  himself. 
Fl°-  33iJA?etyea™W  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the 


Trimming  the  Young  Tree 


187 


younger  the  stock  the  more  nearly  to  a  whip  it  may  be 
pruned. 

It  may  be  said,  then,  that  peach  trees  and  other  small 
or  slender  trees  should  be  well  headed  back  and  spurred 


Fio.  34.  Pear 
tree  pruned  for 
planting. 


FIG.  35.  Young 
plum  tree, 
pruned. 


FIG.  36.  Second- 
class  apple  tree, 
with  leader  at  a. 


FIG.  37. Second- 
class  tree,  with 
leader  at  a. 


(Figs.  31,  32);  but  that  strong  well-branched  trees  may 
have  the  head  started  at  the  desired  height  at  the 
time  of  planting,  all  the  branches  being  well  headed  back 
(Figs.  33  and  34).  Fig  35  shows  a  small  plum  tree  cut 
to  spurs,  and  the  roots  have  also  been  properly  dressed. 
Figs.  36  and  37  show  second-class  apple  trees.  In  these 
trees,  the  tops  are  not  well  formed,  and  it  might  be  best  to 
trim  to  a  whip,  allowing  the  branches  a  to  become  the 


188 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


leaders.  Such  whips  may  look  very  crooked  and  scrawny, 
but  they  will  straighten  as  they  grow.  Fig.  38  shows 
three  apple  trees  before  and  after  shaping  (Jarvis,  Conn. 
Bull.  No.  62).  The  lines  in  *Fig.  39  show  where  a  grape 
plant  should  be  pruned.  The  top  should  be  cut  at  a  and  6, 


FIG.  38.  Tree  tops  unpruned  and  pruned. 

the  upper  roots  trimmed  off  at  c  and  d,  and  the  main  roots 
cut  in  from  e  to  /. 

The  trees  may  be  trimmed  before  they  are  planted, 
although  it  is  usually  better  to  trim  just  after  they  are 
set,  especially  if  the  tree  is  trimmed  after  the  method  of 
Fig.  34,  for  one  can  then  better  estimate  the  proper  height, 
the  operation  is  more  easily  done,  and  there  is  no  further 
danger  of  breaking  off  the  limbs  by  the  handling  of  the 


Trimming  the  Young  Tree 


189 


tree.  One  foot  is  planted  firmly  at  the  base  of  the  tree, 
and  then  with  one  hand  the  branch  to  be  removed  is 
bent  upwards  and  with  the  other  hand  the  knife  is 
applied  to  the  under  side  and  the  cut  is  made  neatly 
and  easily  (Fig.  40).  Never  cut  downwards  on  a  limb, 
for  a  ragged  wound  nearly  always 
follows. 

In  fall-set  trees  it  is  some- 
times thought  to  be  inadvisable 
to  prune  before  spring  because 
the  cut  surfaces  are  liable  to 
dry  out.  It  has  been  shown 
by  Howard,  however,  that  the 
evaporation  from  wounds  is  not 
so  great  as  from  the  branches 
of  unpruned  trees;  and  fall- 
pruned  trees  in  his  investiga- 
tions started  to  grow  better 
the  following  spring  and  made 
more  growth  in  the  summer  than 
unpruned  trees. 

In  shaping  or  starting  the 
future  top,  care  should  be  taken 
to  avoid  crotches  or  the  joining  of  branches  at  the  same 
level,  for  the  tops  are  likely  to  split  later  on,  with  ice  or 
fruit.  The  framework  branches  should  alternate  on  the 
trunk  and  should  start  at  different  levels  and  preferably 
several  inches  apart. 

The  height  at  which  to  start  the  top  is  largely  a  matter 
of  personal  preference.  In  the  East,  apple  and  other  trees 
have  undoubtedly  been  started  too  high,  and  the  tendency 
is  now  to  start  very  low.  Three  to  4  feet  of  trunk  for 
grown  trees  is  the  author's  preference  for  apples  east  of  the 


FIG.  39.  Trimming  the  grape  at 
planting. 


190 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


Great  Lakes.  Jarvis  (Conn.  Bull.  No.  62)  writes  as  follows 
on  this  subject  for  New  England  conditions:  "During 
recent  years  the  difficulty  of  getting  properly  shaped  trees 
has  been  greatly  lessened,  for  the  nurserymen  are  now 
heading  their  trees  much  lower.  The  low-headed  tree  is 

now  generally  preferred.  For 
most  varieties  the  head  should 
be  formed  about  2  feet  above 
the  ground,  but  with  those 
varieties  like  Rhode  Island 
Greening  and  Tolman,  that 
are  naturally  spreading,  the 
head  may  be  started  higher, 
and  with  varieties  like  the 
Yellow  Transparent,  that  are 
naturally  upright  growers,  the 
head  may  be  started  much 
lower."  Fig.  41  shows  a  tree 
that  Jarvis  considers  to  be 
started  too  high.  Fig.  42 
shows  what  has  been  the  pre- 
vailing type  of  stout  long- 
bodied  American  nursery  tree. 
In  the  country  west  of  the 
Great  Lakes,  low  heads  are 
advised.  "For  Iowa  conditions,"  according  to  Erwin  and 
Bliss,  "a  low-headed  tree  is  to  be  desired  for  a  number  of 
reasons.  The  fruit  is  much  easier  to  pick,  the  spraying 
can  be  done  more  thoroughly,  there  are  less  windfalls,  and 
the  tree  is  also  less  liable  to  sunscald.  The  first  branches 
should  be  formed  20  to  24  inches  above  the  ground.  If  the 
tree  is  headed  too  high  when  it  comes  from  the  nur- 
sery it  can  be  cut  back." 


FIG.  40.  Pruning  the  newly  set  tree. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  LAYING  OUT  OF  THE  PLANTATION 

ARRANGEMENT  of  the  plants  in  the  plantation  may 
now  be  considered.  Berry  fruits,  grapes,  cranberries  and 
similar  things  are  set  in  rows  at  small  distances  apart  and 
the  land  is  all  utilized  quickly.  Little  need  be  done  in  the 
placing  of  the  plants  except  to  line  out  the  area  accu- 
rately and  to  set  the  plants  along  the  lines.  The  matter  is 
not  so  simple  in  the  case 
of  orchards,  however,  for 
the  distances  are  greater, 
the  trees  do  not  occupy 
the  land  quickly,  and 
means  must  be  found  of 
utilizing  the  area  to  the 
best  advantage.  Rarely 
can  an  orchard  of  any 
size  be  satisfactorily  set 
merely  by  following  lines 
for  separate  rows;  the 
entire  area  is  to  be  laid  out 
geometrically  in  advance. 
It  is  much  satisfaction  to 
have  an  orchard  as  well 
laid  out  as  that  shown 
in  Fig.  43.  It  is  not 
only  a  matter  of  looks, 

i_  «  i          11  .  Fia.  41.  Poorly-shaped  young  tre 

but  Of  easy  handling.  the  head  started  very  high. 

(191) 


tree,  with 


192 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


Contour  planting. 

On  steep  lands  it  may  be  desirable  to  plant  the  trees  on 
the  contours,  following  the  grades  around  the  hill  or  along 
the  face  of  the  slope.  This  facilitates  tillage,  tends  to 
prevent  disastrous  washing,  and  allows  of  more  easy 
access  to  the  plantation  by  team  and 
wagon.  The  utility  of  the  geometrical 
systems  is  most  marked  on  level  lands. 

Orchard  systems. 

It  is  possible  to  plant  the  trees  in 
many  geometrical  patterns,  but  the 
main  or  prevailing  systems  are  three, 
with  variations.  These  (Fig.  44,  from 
Martin,  Cornell  Bull.)  are  as  follows: 
1.  Rectangular,  the  most  usual 
and  the  simplest  form,  in  which  the 
trees  occupy  the  four  corners  of  a 
rectangle.  The  rectangle  is  usually 
equal-sided  (i.e.,  square).  2.  Quincunx, 
in  which  a  tree  is  set  in  the  center  of 
the  rectangle  to  economize  space. 
This  system  is  particularly  well 
adapted  to  the  use  of  fillers.  3. 
Equilateral  triangle,  known  also  as 
triangular  and  hexagonal,  in  which 
the  field  is  so  laid  out  that  all  the 
trees  stand  at  equal  distances. 

Theoretically,  the  quincunx  and  equilateral  triangle 
are  most  to  be  desired  because  the  land  is  most  uniformly 
and  completely  utilized.  It  is  a  fair  question,  however, 
whether  it  may  be  desirable  to  utilize  all  the  land  in  this 
way,  or  whether,  in  fact,  the  practical  working  out  of  the 


FIG.  42.  First-class 
apple  trees,  with  stout 
high  trunks. 


The  Different  Systems 


193 


business  confirms  the  advantages  of  the  paper  plan.  The 
roots  forage  far  and  wide  and  the  so-called  unoccupied  places 
may  be  the  very  areas  in  which  they  forage  to  best  advan- 
tage. It  is  also  well  to  have  broad  open  spaces  of  sunshine, 
to  facilitate  the  ripening  and  coloring  of  the  fruit;  and  free 
spaces  are  needed  for  the  easy  handling  of  large  spray  rigs, 
heavy  tillage  tools,  harvesting  apparatus,  and  for  use  in 
the  packing  of  fruit  and  the  piling  of  boxes  and  barrels. 


FIG.  43.  A  well-laid-out  young  orchard.   Oregon. 


If  land  is  high-priced  or  limited  in  extent,  it  may  be 
desirable  to  space  all  the  trees  at  equal  distances;  but 
such  systems  demand  good  land,  heavier  fertilizing,  more 
care  in  pruning,  and  they  entail  extra  labor  to  the  tree  in 
spraying  when  the  trees  begin  to  cover  the  ground.  For  the 
general  run  of  orchards,  the  rectangular  or  square  form 
of  planting  is  undoubtedly  to  be  recommended 

Experiments  at  Woburn,  England,  with  plums  grown 
eleven  years  on  the  square  and  hexagonal  systems,  and 
also  on  a  rectangular  arrangement  with  double  the  distance 
between  the  rows  as  between  the  trees  in  the  row,  the 
same  number  of  trees  being  grown  in  a  given  area,  gave 
M 


194  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

an  increase  in  growth  of  1.7  per  cent  in  favor  of  the 
hexagonal  planting,  all  the  trees  having  been  lifted  and 
weighed.  This  is  a  small  gain,  and  probably  does  not 
offset  the  cultural  advantages  of  the  square  planting. 

Making  the  rows  straight. 

It  is  difficult  to  make  the  rows  straight  in  large  areas 
and  to  place  the  trees  at  proper  intervals,  particularly  on 


FIG.  44.  The  diagonal,  quincunx  and  hexagonal  systems. 

rolling  ground.  Persons  who  have  had  areas  regularly 
surveyed  with  chain  and  compass,  and  a  stake  set  for 
every  tree,  may  have  found  the  orchards  to  be  as  crooked 
as  others  set  with  much  less  care.  The  surveyor  sets  his 
stakes  by  sighting  across  the  field  from  certain  fixed  points; 
but  it  is  difficult  for  the  planter,  when  the  stake  is  removed 
and  the  hole  dug,  to  stand  the  tree  in  the  exact  place  of 
the  stake.  It  is  better  to  regard  the  trees  as  stakes  and  to 
set  them  by  sighting.  The  area  can  be  "run  out"  on  two 
or  three  of  the  sides,  a  conspicuous  stake  being  set  at  the 
location  of  each  tree  on  these  outside  rows.  If  the  field 
is  large  or  rolling,  it  may  be  necessary  to  set  one  or  two 
lines  of  stakes  across  the  center  of  the  field  also.  For  areas 
of  a  few  acres,  a  garden-line  stretched  across  the  place  will 
be  a  great  help  and  save  much  time.  This  line  is  moved 


Getting  the  Rows  Straight  195 

at  either  end  to  the  adjoining  row,  as  soon  as  one  row  is 
set  alongside  it.  Persons  sometimes  tie  strings  on  the  line 
at  the  given  intervals,  expecting  to  set  a  tree  at  every 
knot,  but  with  the  stretching  of  the  line,  and  other  errors, 
it  is  difficult  to  get  the  cross-rows  straight  in  this  way. 

On  comparatively  level  fields,  especially  if  the  land  is 
in  good  tilth,  the  plantation  may  be  laid  out  with  a  corn- 
marker.  If  the  planter  keeps  his  back  to  the  row  of  trees 
and  sights  ahead  to  the  marked  line  or  furrow,  he  will  get 
his  rows  straighter  than  if  he  sights  by  the  trees.  Two  men 


FIG.  45.  Planting-board. 

are  better  than  one  when  setting  plants,  for  one  usually 
attends  to  the  sighting  while  the  other  puts  in  the  plants. 
There  are  various  devices  for  locating  the  position  of 
the  orginal  stake,  after  the  hole  has  been  dug.  One  of  the 
best  consists  simply  of  a  thin  board  3  or  4  inches  wide  and 
6  or  7  feet  long  (Fig.  45),  with  a  notch  at  its  center, 
and  a  stationary  leg  or  pin  at  one  end  (a).  The  other  end 
(6)  is  provided  with  a  hole  to  receive  the  top  of  another 
stake  or  pin.  The  notch  is  set  against  the  stake,  the  legs 
at  each  end  of  the  board  being  thrust  into  the  ground  at 
the  same  time.  The  end  (6)  is  now  raised  off  the  pin  or  leg, 
and  the  board  is  swung  around  out  of  the  range  of  the  hole. 
When  the  hole  is  dug,  the  end  (c)  is  swung  back  and 
dropped  over  the  pin,  and  the  tree  is  set  in  the  notch.  On 


196 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


the  practical  use  of  this  device,  Stuart  writes  as  follows 
(Vt.  Bull.  No.  141):  "When  each  tree  stake  has  been 
located,  the  setting  board  is  brought  into  play.  This  con- 
sists of  a  board  some  6  feet  in  length  and  4  to  5  inches 
wide,  having  two  holes  bored  some  3  or  4  inches  from 
either  end  and  a  notch  in  the  center.  The  notch  of  the 
setting -board  is  placed  against  the  tree  stake  and  two 


FIG.  46.  The  planting-board  in  use. 

smaller  stakes  are  set  through  the  end  holes,  after  which 
the  board  is  removed.  The  central  stake  is  then  removed 
and  the  hole  dug.  In  setting  the  tree,  the  setting-board  is 
again  brought  into  play  by  being  put  over  the  two  smaller 
stakes,  the  center  notch  determining  the  position  of  the 
tree  (Fig.  46).  By  being  careful  always  to  work  in 
the  same  direction  with  the  setting-board,  and  observing 
the  same  precaution  while  setting  the  tree,  one  should 
succeed  in  planting  each  tree  in  perfect  alignment,  in  both 
directions,  with  every  other  tree  in  the  row,  without  the 
necessity  of  sighting.  This  method  of  course  cannot  be 
recommended  for  large  operations." 


Making  the  Lines  Straight  197 

Another  form  of  planting-board,  described  by  J.  C. 
Moore,  is  the  equilateral  triangle.  Three  laths  or  narrow 
pieces  of  timber  are  fastened  together  so  that  they  form 
a  triangle  with  the  ends  projecting,  as  shown  in  Fig.  47. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  have  the 
distance  between  each  two  adjoin- 
ing corners  equal,  as  this  will 
relieve  the  necessity  of  replacing 
the  triangle  in  the  same  position. 
One  projecting  end  is  put  over  the 
tree  stake,  and  the  pins  placed 
in  the  others.  This  marks  the 

location  of  tne  tree  after  digging 

the  hole. 

The  trees  may  be  planted  in  furrows,  as  explained 
farther  on  (page  200).  Blake  writes  (N.  J.  Circ.  No.  14): 
"If  the  land  is  well  furrowed  out  where  the  trees  are  to  be 
planted,  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  move  from  two  to 
four  shovelfuls  of  soil  in  order  to  make  a  hole  of  sufficient 
width  and  depth  to  receive  each  tree.  One  man  should 
then  hold  the  tree  in  place  while  the  other  shovels  in  some 
of  the  loose,  moist  surface-soil  about  the  roots.  The  trees 
should  be  set  at  sufficient  depth  to  bring  the  point  where 
the  trees  were  budded  just  below  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
The  man  holding  the  tree  can  make  the  soil  firm  about 
the  roots  with  his  feet  and  hands,  and  at  the  same  time 
keep  the  tree  in  line  both  ways.  If  the  line  method  pre- 
viously described  is  used  he  will  only  be  obliged  to  sight 
one  way  to  make  sure  that  the  tree  is  in  place.  The  last 
one  or  two  shovelfuls  of  soil  should  be  thrown  about  the 
tree  loosely  and  not  tramped  dowri.  If  the  land  has  been 
properly  and  thoroughly  prepared,  as  described,  a  three- 
man  planting  gang  should  be  able  to  set  fifty  trees  an  hour 


198  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

without  difficulty  upon  the  sandy  soils  after  the  outside 
rows  have  been  established.  Upon  the  stony  mountain 
soils  or  upon  the  red  shale,  more  time  will  be  required  to 
set  the  trees."  Figs.  48,  49,  50,  show  Blake's  method. 


FIG.  48.  Furrowing  for  the  planting  of  peach  trees. 

How  to  get  the  rows  straight  may  be  discussed  here 
in  more  detail.  Three  ways  are  quoted  from  H.  E.  Van 
Deman: 

"To  lay  out  with  the  plow. — Before  doing  anything,  one  must 
decide  which  style  or  arrangement  of  the  trees  is  to  be  followed  and 
the  distance  apart  to  plant  them.  This  having  been  decided,  the 
first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  establish  a  base  line,  which  should  be 
along  a  fence,  road  or  some  other  permanent  border  of  the  tract  to 
be  planted.  Prepare  enough  small  split  stakes,  that  may  be  easily 
seen,  to  put  at  each  end  of  every  tree-row;  that  is,  enough  to  go 
entirely  around  the  tract.  Then,  set  a  stake  firmly  at  a  spot  which 
shall  be  the  first  established  corner  of  the  outside  limits  of  the  orchard. 
It  must,  however,  be  set  at  a  spot  which  shall  also  be  the  end  of 


Making  the  Rows  Straight 


199 


'•:-.;.^|;;V'-       '     •-:,";^a:— r-v, 

-' 


FIG.  49.  The  orchard  immediately  after  trees  are  set. 


FIG.  50.  Newly  planted  orchard,  prepared  for  a  crop  of  corn. 


200  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

another  line  running  exactly  at  right  angles  to  the  base  line.  In  the 
West,  where  the  farms  are  nearly  all  laid  out  in  perfect  squares  or 
rectangles,  the  fields  are  apt  to  be  rectangular.  In  the  absence  of  a 
surveyor's  transit,  a  carpenter's  square  may  be  used  to  establish  the 
lines,  by  sighting  along  its  edges  when  laid  on  the  tops  of  three  stakes 
at  the  corner.  Set  a  stake  at  the  farther  end  of  each  of  these  lines. 
From  this  first  corner  stake,  measure  along  the  base-line  15  feet,  or 
as  far  as  it  is  thought  best  to  have  the  width  of  the  margin  between 
the  trees  and  the  fence,  and  there  set  a  stake.  Next,  measure  along 
the  base-line  from  this  second  stake  the  distance  that  the  trees  will 
be  apart,  and  set  a  stake.  Measure  along  the  entire  length  of  the  base- 
line, setting  a  stake  at  every  16^,  20,  25,  33  feet,  or  whatever  dis- 
tance may  have  been  decided  upon.  This  line  of  stakes  being  only 
the  ends  of  the  transverse  rows  and  not  the  places  for  trees,  they 
need  not  be  set  absolutely  in  a  straight  line,  but  should  be  nearly  so. 
Then,  go  back  to  the  original  corner  stake  and  measure  15  feet  at 
right  angles  to  the  base-line  and  set  a  stake,  which  determines  the 
width  of  the  border  next  the  base-line.  Now,  measure  and  set  stakes 
along  this  other  side  of  the  orchard  site,  up  to  the  stake  at  the  farther 
end.  The  two  remaining  sides  should  be  measured  and  staked  in  the 
same  way. 

"Provide  several  tall  stakes  with  a  white  rag  tied  at  the  top  of 
each,  to  use  as  sight  poles  at  each  end.  If  one  can  run  a  straight  line 
with  a  plow  without  intermediate  sight  poles,  that  is,  with  only  one 
at  each  end,  these  will  be  enough;  but  I  have  found  that  it  pays  to 
have  an  extra  line  of  stakes  set  a  few  rods  from  each  end,  and  a  guide 
pole  to  be  set  at  each  in  turn,  as  the  laying-out  progresses. 

"We  are  now  ready  for  the  plow.  Some  like  one  horse,  but  two 
make  the  plow  run  steadier,  and  it  is  easier  for  the  plowman  to  sight 
between  two  horses  than  over  the  head  of  one.  My  plan  is,  first  to 
mark  out  crosswise  to  the  way  I  intend  to  plant,  and  to  make  but 
a  single  shallow  furrow.  This  being  done,  we  are  ready  to  make  the 
furrows  in  which  to  plant.  If  these  run  up  and  down  the  slope  they 
will  act  as  a  drain  to  the  trees,  in  some  measure.  By  plowing  two 
rounds  and  finishing  with  a  dead-furrow  or  trench  on  the  line,  and 
then  subsoiling  in  the  bottom  of  it,  there  will  be  very  little  work  for 
the  spade  in  preparing  to  set  the  trees.  It  is  by  no  means  difficult  to 
set  them  in  the  checks,  with  a  little  sighting,  so  straight  that  no  one 
would  know  but  that  they  were  set  by  a  line.  After  setting  the  trees, 
hitch  one  horse  to  a  plow  with  a  very  short  singletree  covered  with 


Making  the  Rows  Straight  20 1 

rags  at  the  ends  to  prevent  injuring  the  trees,  and  fill  up  the  trench 
at  two  rounds.  Then  plow  the  space  between  the  rows.  One  thing 
must  be  very  carefully  figured  out  the  very  first  thing,  if  the  hex- 
agonal style  is  used,  and  that  is,  the  distances  between  the  rows  at 
right  angles,  and  not  diagonally  from  tree  to  tree,  and  then  accurately 
measured  and  staked  on  the  outer  lines.  The  great  Wellhouse  orch- 
ards, in  Kansas,  were  laid  out  with  the  plow.  J.  H.  Hale  substituted 
a  6Q-cent  per  day  darkey  and  a  mule  for  a  $6  surveyor  and  transit, 
in  laying  out  his  rows  for  planting  his  600-acre  peach  orchard  in 
Georgia. 

"Laying  out  with  a  line. — For  small  orchards  of  an  acre  or  two, 
I  have  often  practised  a  method  of  laying  out  in  the  hexagonal  style, 
which  is  very  quickly  and  easily  done.  As  many  stakes  are  provided 
as  there  are  trees  to  be  set.  A  wire  is  prepared  of  the  exact  length 
that  the  trees  are  to  be  apart,  and  a  ring  or  loop  twisted  in  at  each 
end,  by  which  to  hold  it.  A  base-line  is  established  by  setting  stakes 
just  where  each  tree  will  be  in  the  first  row.  One  person  (A)  slips 
a  finger  through  one  ring,  and  another  (B)  takes  the  other  end  of  the 
wire  and  runs  a  small  stick  through  the  ring.  A  holds  his  end  exactly 
at  stake  1,  and  B  steps  to  where  he  supposes  the  first  tree  of  the 
second  row  will  come,  and  with  the  point  of  his  stick  marks  a  small 
segment  of  a  circle  on  the  ground.  He  remains  there  while  A  goes 
to  stake  2  and  holds  his  end  exactly  to  it.  B  describes  another  arc  on 
the  ground,  and  where  it  crosses  the  first  one  he  sets  a  stake,  and 
moves  to  the  place  for  the  next  stake.  There  he  makes  a  mark,  and 
A  then  goes  to  stake  3  of  the  base-line  and  holds  the  wire  as  before, 
while  B  finds  the  crossing  of  the  marks  and  sets  another  stake;  and 
so  on  to  the  end  of  the  row.  When  the  second  row  is  complete  it  is 
used  as  a  base-line  from  which  to  make  a  third,  and  so  on.  If  the  work 
is  done  carefully  the  stakes  will  be  found  to  be  in  very  straight  rows 
every  way.  I  have  tried  it  on  some  of  the  roughest  hills  in  northern 
Michigan,  where,  in  newly  cleared  places  the  stumps  were  very  thick, 
and  planted  nice  orchards  that  are  now  over  twenty-five  years  old, 
that  look  to-day  as  if  the  trees  might  have  been  set  by  a  compass 
and  chain.  On  level  ground,  free  from  obstructions,  it  is  fun  to  lay 
out  an  orchard  so. 

"Another  line  method. — Another  cheap  and  handy  method  is,  to 
mark  and  set  by  a  wire  long  enough  to  reach  entirely  across  the  field. 
It  should  be  stretched  tightly  between  two  stout  stakes  that  have 
been  firmly  driven  into  the  ground,  and  exactly  on  the  line  of  the 


202  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

first  row  to  be  planted.  Directly  over  the  place  for  the  first  tree  or 
vine,  wrap  a  small  wire  two  or  three  times  and  twist  the  ends  tightly, 
so  it  cannot  slip.  Measure  along  the  wire  to  the  next  place  and  fasten 
another  wire  coil,  and  so  on  to  the  end.  If  these  little  coils  were 
soldered  fast  they  could  not  move.  A  little  piece  of  bright  cloth 
should  be  tied  over  them,  that  the  places  may  be  easily  seen.  Now, 
dig  the  holes  and  plant  the  first  row  while  the  wire  is  in  place.  Then 
move  the  wire  and  stakes  to  the  second  row  and  stretch  as  before, 
being  very  careful  to  have  the  first  mark  exactly  where  the  first  tree 
should  be.  Proceed  to  dig  and  plant  as  before.  Move  the  wire  to 
the  third  row,  and  so  on  throughout.  This  obviates  all  necessity 
for  marking  off  upon  the  ground,  except  the  distances  between  the 
rows  and  a  starting-point  on  each  row." 

Staking  methods. — There  are  so  many  methods  of  staking  out  an 
orchard,  that  it  will  interest  the  reader  if  one  of  the  best  of  them  is 
described.  The  Yeomans  plan  is  as  follows:  "In  connection  with 
the  accompanying  diagram,  is  explained  an  easy,  simple  and  accurate 
way  of  marking  out  the  ground  and  planting  the  trees  without  put- 
ting any  stakes  where  trees  are  to  be  planted  or  removing  any  while 
planting.  The  stakes  not  only  show  where  to  dig  the  holes,  but  when 
the  planting  is  to  be  done  the  same  stakes  indicate  the  precise  place 
where  the  trees  are  to  placed,  always  sighting  only  by  the  stakes  in 
setting,  without  any  regard  to  the  trees  planted.  Thus  all  the  stakes 
will  be  standing  when  the  last  tree  is  planted,  showing  the  accuracy 
of  the  work  done. 

"The  outside  line  of  the  diagram  (Fig.  51)  represents  the 
ground  to  be  planted;  the  dots  are  stakes,  by  means  of  which  the 
location  of  each  tree  can  readily  be  found  without  any  measure- 
ments; but  none  of  them  stands  where  trees  are  to  be  planted.  The 
ground  being  properly  prepared  for  one  hundred  trees,  provide  sixty 
lath  as  very  suitable  stakes — light,  straight  and  of  proper  length — 
lay  them  on  the  ground  or  a  board,  and  whitewash  on  each  side  about 
a  foot  or  more  at  one  end,  by  which  they  can  readily  be  seen  at  a 
distance  and  distinguished  from  any  other  stake  or  object.  Let  two 
men  with  a  tape-line  start  at  the  corner  of  the  ground  at  D,  and 
measure  25  feet  along  the  east  side  to  1  and  then  set  a  stake;  thence 
measure  40  feet  to  2,  setting  a  stake,  and  continue  to  10,  putting  a 
stake  every  40  feet  to  C,  setting  all  stakes  as  perpendicularly  as 
possible. 


Staking  the  Area  203 

"Then  with  ten  stakes  start  at  B  and  measure  the  same  distance 
toward  A,  sticking  a  stake  first  at  25  feet,  and  after  that  40  feet,  to 
correspond  with  those  on  the  east  side.  And  on  the  same  plan  and 
in  the  same  manner,  stick  ten  stakes  40  feet  apart  along  the  north 
and  south  bounds  of  the  orchard,  and  entirely  outside  of  where  any 


10 


G 


10 


SOUTH 
FIG.  51.  Diagram  to  illustrate  the  planting  of  an  orchard. 

trees  are  to  be  planted,  being  particular  that  no  trees  shall  be  planted 
nearer  than  25  feet  to  the  fences  surrounding  the  orchard,  for  the 
reason  that  when  the  trees  become  large,  as  much  as  25  feet  of  space 
will  be  necessary  to  allow  a  spraying  wagon  and  fixtures  to  pass  in 
spraying  the  trees  properly,  and  to  place  ladders  about  the  trees  for 
gathering  the  fruit. 

"The  stakes  being  set  around  the  orchard  ground  at  proper  dis- 
tances, the  tape-line  is  no  longer  needed,  as  the  cross  intermediate 
rows  of  stakes  are  to  be  set  by  sight.  Now  let  one  man  take  ten  of 


204 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


the  white-top  stakes  and  go  about  to  E  (at  bottom  of  diagram),  and 
another  man  go  to  the  first  stake  north  of  D,  and  sight  the  man  at  E 
precisely  where  to  stick  a  stake  in  line  with  the  two  stakes  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  ground;  then  move  northward  to  2,  and  stick  a  stake 
between  2  and  2;  and  thus  continue  from  south  to  north  and  from 
east  to  west,  through  and  not  far  from  the  middle  of  the  field,  being 
careful  not  to  place  either  of  these  intermediate  rows  where  a  row 
of  trees  is  to  be  planted.  These  rows  need  not  be  straight,  but  each 
stake  must  be  in  line  with  the  corresponding  stakes  at  the  right 
and  left. 

"With  the  stakes  thus  placed,  a  person  moving  anywhere  about 
the  ground  to  be  planted  can  readily  find,  by  looking  in  the  direction 


FIG.  52.    Square  system.   The  above  plat  represents  an  acre  of  land  with  the 
trees  25  feet  apart.    (Figs.  52-58  from  N.  O.  Booth.-) 


Staking  the  Area 


205 


FIG.  53.  Hexagonal  or  triangular  system.   One  acre  of  land  with  the 
trees  25  feet  apart. 

of  two  stakes  in  two  directions  at  right  angles,  precisely  where  a  tree 
is  to  be  planted.  Thus,  a  person  standing  at  either  X  is  at  a  point 
where  a  tree  must  stand,  and  at  either  of  those  points  will  see  two 
stakes  in  a  line  with  him  in  two  directions  at  right  angles;  and  so  of 
every  point  where  a  tree  is  to  be  planted.  If  men  are  to  be  employed 
to  dig  the  holes,  who  are  not  capable  of  setting  a  stake  in  line  with 
two  other  stakes  already  standing  (there  are  such  men),  let  some 
one  who  can  do  so  go  through  the  field,  and  with  point  of  stake  or 
other  thing,  mark  where  the  holes  are  to  be  dug. 

"With  this  arrangement  no  stakes  are  placed  where  the  trees  are 
to  be  planted.  Any  number  of  men  can  go  on  with  the  work  of  dig- 


206 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


ging  the  holes  and  planting  in  any  part  of  the  orchard  without 
reference  to  any  other  trees  in  any  other  part.  The  writer  has  planted 
about  150  acres  of  apple  and  100  acres  of  peach  orchard  on  this  plan, 
and  has  furnished  many  persons  brief  descriptions  of  same  for  plant- 
ing; has  planted  rows  30  to  40  rods  long  of  nice  trees,  so  straight  in 


Fia.  54.  Quincunx  system.  One  acre  of  land  with  the  trees  25  feet  apart  in 
the  row,  but  only  about  14  H  feet  diagonally  across,  or  from  any  tree  to  its  nearest 
neighbor. 

line  that  a  stake  2  inches  in  diameter  set  up  in  the  row  would  hide 
every  tree  from  view,  looking  from  the  end  thereof." 

Details  of  orchard  lay-outs. 

A  further  exact  discussion  of  the  systems  of  orchard-planting, 
with  diagrams  (Figs.  52-58),  will  aid  the  intending  planter.  Booth 


Planting  in  Squares 


207 


writes  as  follows  on  the  subject  (Okla.  Exp.  Sta.  Circ.  No.  20): 
"From  the  standpoint  of  the  number  of  trees  contained  on  an  acre 
we  find :  That  planted  by  the  square  system,  with  trees  25  feet  apart, 
an  acre  will  contain  sixty-four  trees.  This  leaves,  however,  about 
16%  feet  around  the  sides  between  the  last  row  of  trees  and  the  out- 
side line,  instead  of  12^,  as  would  be  intended.  When  the  acre  is 
planted  by  the  triangular  or  hexagonal  system  it  will  be  found  to 

f .__...-JM.K— ., 


3 


@ 


Fia.  55.  Twenty-five  trees  planted  according  to  square  system.    Dotted 
lines  indicate  feeding-area  assigned  to  each  tree. 

contain  sixty-seven  trees.  Here  again,  however,  in  planting  the 
single  acre,  the  trees  do  not  fit  the  plat,  and  there  is  a  margin  left 
over  on  two  of  the  sides  of  16|  feet,  instead  of  12^.  It  is  difficult  to 
say  how  many  trees  may  be  planted  on  an  acre  by  the  quincunx 
system  on  account  of  the  difference  of  meaning  as  to  what  is  intended. 
Usually  in  comparing  this  system  with  others  they  are  compared 
with  the  trees  the  same  distance  apart  in  the  rows.  This  is  not  a 
fair  comparison,  however,  for  when  trees  are  planted  by  this 
system  the  nearest  tree  to  any  given  tree  is  not  the  next  tree  down 
the  row,  but  the  next  tree  diagonally  across.  Taking  it  in  the  sense 
in  which  it  is  generally  used,  an  acre  of  land  planted  according  to 


208 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


the  quincunx  system  contains  113  trees.   Here,  as  in  the  square 
system,  a  16%  foot  margin  is  left  instead  of  the  intended  12^  feet. 


"NUMBER  OF  TREES  TO  THE  ACRE  PLANTED  25  FEET  APART 

Square  system  ..............................................  64 

Hexagonal  or  triangular  system  ...............................  67 

Quincunx  system  (trees  25  feet  apart  in  the  row,  but  only  about 

feet  from  any  tree  to  its  nearest  neighbor)  .............  113 


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FIG.  56.  Twenty-five  trees  planted  according  to  hexagonal  system. 
Dotted  lines  indicate  feeding-area  of  each  tree. 

"Approaching  the  subject  from  another  standpoint,  we  find  that 
if  we  desire  to  plant  twenty-five  trees  25  feet  apart,  we  have  the  fol- 
lowing space  required  for  the  different  methods  of  arranging:  By 
the  square  system  it  will  require  a  plat  of  land  125  feet  square,  with 
an  area  of  15,625  square  feet.  By  the  triangular  system  it  will  require 
a  plat  of  land  137^  feet  one  ray,  by  111.62  the  other,  with  an 
area  of  15,345  square  feet.  By  the  quincunx  system,  as  the  meaning 
is  usually  accepted,  that  is  with  the  trees  25  feet  apart  in  the  rows, 
the  twenty-five  trees  occupy  a  tract  of  land  100  feet  square,  with  an 
area  of  10,000  square  feet.  By  the  quincunx  system  in  the  more 
correct  sense  of  having  the  trees  with  25  feet  from  any  tree  to  its 
nearest  neighbor,  twenty-five  trees  require  a  tract  131  feet  each  way 
with  a  total  area  of  17,161  square  feet. 


Planting  in  Quincunx 


209 


"LENGTH    BREADTH  AND  TOTAL  AREA  REQUIRED  TO  PLANT 
TWENTY-FIVE  TREES  25  FEET  APART,  BY  DIFFERENT  SYSTEMS 


Length 
(feet) 

Breadth 
(feet) 

Total  area 
(sq.  ft.) 

Square  system                  

125.0 

125.0 

15  625  0 

Hexagonal  or  triangular  system  

137.5 

111.6 

15,247.7 

Quincunx  system  (trees  25  feet  apart  in 
row)       

100.0 

100.0 

10,000.0 

Quincunx  system  (trees  25  feet  apart  in 
diagonal  row)                           

131.0 

131.0 

17  161  0 

"It  will  thus  be  £een  that  there  is  a  certain  gain  in  the  amount  of 
land  required  to  plant  twenty-five  trees,  by  using  the  triangular 
rather  than  the  square  system  of  planting.  This  gain  is  evident  for 

*.-  .jpojc. 


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v 


FIG.  57.  Twenty-five  trees  planted  according  to  quincunx  system. 

even  so  small  a  tract  of  land  as  that  required  for  twenty-five  trees; 
and  since  it  is  evident  that  there  is  a  slight  loss  by  the  triangular 
system  on  the  outside  rows,  the  gain  would  be  greater,  proportion- 
ately, with  a  larger  area. 

N 


210 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


"It  appears  to  be  doubtful  if  there  is  any  gain  in  using  the  quincunx 
system  rather  than  the  square  system.  In  the  small  plat  of  twenty- 
five  trees  there  is  no  gain,  but  a  decided  loss,  when  the  trees  are 
planted  the  same  distance  apart.  There  is,  however,  an  evident  and 
great  gain  when  an  extra  tree  is  added  to  the  center  of  each  square. 
To  any  person  with  the  most  rudimentary  notion  of  geometry  it  is 
evident  that  there  is  no  essential  difference  between  the  quincunx 


FIG.  58.  Twenty-iive  trees  planted  according  to  quincunx  system. — 
Trees  are  25  feet  from  nearest  neighbor. 

system  and  tKe  square  system.  In  the  first  case,  the  rows  run  diago- 
nally with  the  outside  boundary,  while  in  the  second,  they  run  at 
right  angles,  or  parallel  with  the  outside  boundary.  In  both  cases 
the  trees  are  arranged  in  squares.  Any  one  with  an  orchard  planted 
on  the  square  system  can  change  it  to  the  quincunx  system  by  cut- 
ting off  the  corners  until  the  outside  boundary  again  becomes  a  rec- 
tangle with  lines  diagonal  with  the  original  boundary  lines.  It  is 
thus  evident  that  any  gain  in  the  number  of  trees  put  on  a  given  area, 
by  the  quincunx  rather  than  the  square  system,  must  be  made  either 
by  closer  fitting  in  the  margin  of  the  field,  or  else  by  putting  the  trees 
closer  together.  An  examination  of  Fig.  57,  where  an  equal  feed- 


Four  Orchard  Systems 


211 


ing-area  is  assigned 
to  each  tree,  shows 
that  there  is  an 
absolute  loss  on  the 
margin.  In  other 
words,  the  whole 
space  is  not  so 
equally  divided 
among  the  different 
trees  by  the  quin- 
cunx system  as  by 
the  square  system. 
An  examination  of 
Fig.  56  shows  that 
the  same  thing  is 
true  of  the  hexagonal 
or  triangular  sys- 
tem." 

Diagrammatic 
representations  of 
the  three  leading  sys- 
tems are  given  in 
Fig.  59,  redrawn 
from  Moore,  Bull. 
201,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.'; 
and  the  alternate 
plan  is  also  shown. 
The  alternate  sys- 
tem, according  to 
Moore,  is  designed 
to  correct  the  diffi- 
culties arising  in  the 
quincunx  plan,  these 
difficulties  being, 
"that  unless  the 
rows  are  more  than 
30  feet  apart,  setting 
a  tree  in  the  center 
of  the  rectangle 
would  so  reduce  the 


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212 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


distance  between  the  rows  that  difficulty  would  be  encountered 
in  orchard  operations."  The  alternate  plan  differs  from  the 
quincunx  "essentially  in  widening  the  distance  between  the  rows, 
maintaining  the  same  distances  between  the  trees  in  the  row, 
and  is  therefore  better  adapted  to  planting  under  40  feet. 
The  first  tree  of  each  of  the  even  rows  is  midway  between  the 
first  and  second  trees  of  the  odd  rows.  The  rows  are  placed  far 
enough  apart  so  that  the  diagonal  distance  between  trees  of  adjoin- 
ing rows  is  greater  than  the  distance  between  trees  in  the  row, 
and  the  perpendicular  distance  between  rows  is  more  than  one-half 
the  distance  between  trees  in  the  row.  In  the  alternate  plan, 
with  trees  30  feet  apart  in  the  row,  the  rows  can  be  placed  much 
closer  together  without  reducing  the  space  between  the  trees  in 
adjoining  rows  so  much  as  to  interfere  with  orchard  operations.  By 
this  method,  the  number  of  trees  to  the  acre  may  be  increased,  the 
land  better  distributed  among  them,  and  inconvenience  in  orchard 
operations  avoided. 

"The  alternate  system  is  frequently  used  in  close  plantings.  In 
an  orchard  with  rows  20  feet  apart,  set  by  the  alternate  system,  it 
will  be  found  much  easier  to  get  between  the  trees  than  if  the  rec- 
tangular system  is  employed,  for  the  distance  between  the  nearest 
trees  of  the  adjoining  row  will  be  approximately  22  feet  4  inches,  or 
over  2  feet  more  than  when  set  by  the  rectangular.  Set  at  this  dis- 
tance the  space  between 
the  trees  of  adjoining  rows 
would  be  approximately 
the  same  as  when  planted 
32  feet  apart  by  the  quin- 
cunx." 

Moore  also  describes 
two  good  additional 
methods  for  placing  the 
trees,  as  follows: 

"Liriing-in  method  (Fig. 
60). — A  method  very  com- 
monly used  in  setting  an 
orchard  by  the  rectangular 
system  is  the  'lining-in' 
method.  Stakes  are  set  on 
both  sides  and  ends  of  the 


FIG.  60.  Staking  the  orchard,  by  not  placing 
the  stakes  where  the  trees  are  to  stand. 


Methods  of  Staking  the  Systems 


213 


area  to  be  planted.  Laths  serve  the  purpose  very  well.  The  first 
stake  should  be  the  proper  distance  from  the  fence,  and  the  others 
at  intervals  equal  to  the  distance  between  the  rows.  Two  rows  of 
stakes  are  run  through  the  center  of  the  area  at  right  angle  to 
each  other,  care  being 
taken  not  to  have 
them  come  on  the 
line  of  the  row,  which 
is  easily  done  by 
starting  between  two 
of  the  stakes  on  the 
end.  These  stakes 
should  be  in  line 
with  the  stakes  run- 
ning parallel  to  them. 
The  man  setting  trees 
now  has  two  stakes  in 
each  direction  by 
which  to  line-in  his 
trees.  By  this  method 
all  intermediate 
stakes  and  the  plant- 
ing-board may  be  dis- 
pensed with. 

"Wire -compass 
method  (Fig.  61). — 
Another  method  is 


*  < 


* 


FIG.  61.  Wire-compass  method  of  staking  out  a 
hexagonal  orchard. 


frequently  used  in  staking  out  the  hexagonal  orchard.  The  first  row 
is  located  with  reference  to  the  fence  and  becomes  the  base-line. 
Beginning  at  the  desired  position  of  the  first  tree,  stakes  are  set  at 
the  desired  distance  between  trees,  a  wire  the  length  of  the  distance 
between  trees  is  then  used  for  the  location  of  the  remaining  trees.  It 
is  convenient  to  have  a  ring  at  each  end  of  the  wire  as  this  facilitates 
handling.  If  the  rings  are  used,  the  length  of  the  wire  should  be  con- 
sidered as  extending  from  center  to  center  of  the  rings.  One  ring 
should  be  fitted  with  a  marking  pin,  this  end  to  be  used  by  the  man 
locating  the  position  of  the  trees. 

"In  locating  the  trees,  A  holds  the  center  of  his  ring  over  the  first 
stake  of  row  1,  while  B  takes  the  marking  end  and  strikes  an  arc  at 
what  he  thinks  is  the  location  of  the  first  tree  of  the  next  row.  A 


214 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


walks  to  the  second  stake  of  the  first  row,  and  B  again  strikes  an  arc. 
At  the  intersection  of  these  arcs  he  sets  a  stake,  locating  the  position 
of  the  tree.  B  then  strikes  an  arc  where  he  thinks  the  location  of  the 
second  tree  will  be.  When  all  the  trees  of  row  2  are  located,  it  becomes 
the  base-line  from  which  to  locate  trees  of  row  3.  If  the  ground  be 
uneven,  a  plumb-bob  should  be  used  so  that  the  wire  may  be  kept 


FIG.  62.  A  method  of  squaring  an  irregular  field. 

horizontal.  In  locating  the  end  tree  there  is  frequently  but  one 
stake  from  which  to  strike  an  arc.  The  location  is  easily  determined, 
however,  by  locating  the  second  tree  first,  and  then  using  it  as  the 
point  from  which  the  arc  is  struck.  After  four  rows  have  been  located 
by  the  arcs,  others  may  be  lined-in." 

The  method  of  squaring  a  field  for  orchard-planting  is  described 
again  by  Jarvis  (Conn.  Bull.  No.  62):  "Before  attempting  to  lay 
out  a  field  that  is  irregular  in  outline,  it  must  first  be  squared  off  in 


To  Square  a  Field  215 

such  a  way  that  the  rows  running  across  the  field  will  be  at  right- 
angles  to  the  rows  running  the  other  direction.  A  base-line  running 
along  a  straight  side  of  a  field  is  first  chosen.  If  there  is  not  a  straight 
side,  a  straight  line  running  along  the  longer  side  of  the  field  may  be 
established.  At  right  angles  to  this  straight  line  and  near  each  end, 
may  be  projected  two  other  lines.  On  small  areas  this  may  be 
done  with  two  straight-edges  and  a  carpenter's  square,  but  on  large 
tracts  this  method  is  not  sufficiently  accurate.  The  best  and  most 
reliable  method  is  that  described  in  Fig.  62.  At  the  desired 
point  (A)  on  the  base-line  a  stake  is  set,  and  exactly  60  feet  from 
this  on  the  same  line  another  stake  (B)  is  set.  By  stretching  a  string 
80  feet  long  from  the  first  stake  (A)  and  another  string  100  feet 
long  from  the  second  stake  (B)  and  by  bringing  the  two  ends  to- 
gether at  (C)  the  position  of  the  third  stake  may  be  determined. 
Then  the  desired  line  is  drawn  from  A  through  C  to  the  other  side 
of  the  field.  The  same  operation  is  repeated  near  the  other  end  of 
the  field.  The  distance  between  the  rows,  one  way,  may  be  marked 
off  on  the  projected  lines  and  the  distance  between  the  rows  the 
other  way,  may  be  indicated  on  the  base-line  and  also  on  the  line 
parallel  to  it  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  field.  The  rows  in  both 
directions  can  be  extended  to  the  margin  of  the  field. 

"On  hilly  lands  it  is  often  very  difficult  to  get  the  trees  lined  up 
properly.  In  such  cases,  telephone  wire  is  sometimes  employed  to 
stretch  across  the  field.  To  indicate  the  position  of  the  trees  a 
smaller  wire  may  be  wound  around  and  soldered  to  the  larger  one 
at  the  required  distances.  The  telephone  wire  is  stretched  tightly, 
and  a  stake  set  at  every  point  indicated  by  the  soldered  wire.  In 
the  hollow  places,  where  the  wire  is  far  above  the  ground,  a  plumb- 
bob  may  be  necessary  to  find  the  exact  position  where  the  stake 
should  be  set.  Twine,  on  account  of  its  stretching  character,  is 
unsuited  to  this  purpose." 

Another  variation  for  the  laying  out  of  a  hexagonal  tract  is  giyen 
by  Fisher  (Mont.  Bull.  No.  77) :  "A  base-line  is  established  along  a 
fence  or  permanent  road,  running  east  and  west  and  marked  off  at 
intervals  at  which  the  trees  are  to  be  planted.  From  the  stakes  thus 
established,  lines,  can  be  run  across  the  field  at  an  angle  of  60°  with 
a  surveyor's  transit  or  other  instrument  that  will  measure  angles. 
These  lines  are  then  marked  off  at  intervals  at  which  the  trees  are 
to  be  planted.  If  an  instrument  for  measuring  angles  is  not  avail- 
able, a  steel  tape  or  wire  about  360  feet  long  should  be  provided. 


216 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


This  tape  should  be  marked  off  at  intervals  at  which  the  trees  are 
to  be  planted.  If  the  trees  are  to  be  set  30  feet  apart  in  the  rows, 
the  tape  should  be  about  370  feet  long,  with  marks  at  every  30  feet. 
This  will  leave  5  feet  at  either  end  for  pulling  while  stretching  the 
tape. 

"A  line  parallel  to  the  base-line  is  then  established  311.76  feet 
distance  either  north  or  south  and  marked  off  at  intervals  of  30  feet, 
the  same  as  the  base-line.  One  end  of  the  tape-line  is  then  held  in 


T     6      9    IO    II     12   13   14   15    16 
FIG.  63.  The  layout  of  a  hexagonal  tract. 

peg  No.  1  (see  Fig.  63),  in  line  AB,  and  the  other  end  of  the  tape  is 
held  at  stake  No.  7  in  line  CD.  The  tape-line  or  wire  should  be  pulled 
taut.  Stakes  are  then  placed  at  every  30  feet  along  the  tape-line. 
When  this  is  done  the  tape-line  is  stretched  between  peg  No.  2  in 
line  AB  and  peg  No.  8  in  line  CD,  and  pegs  placed  at  each  30-foot 
mark.  This  process  is  repeated  until  the  length  of  the  field  has  been 
gone  over,  when  there  will  be  a  triangular  space  at  each  end  that  is 
not  marked  off,  but  which  can  be  easily  marked  off  by  sighting  the 
stakes  in.  Two  men  and  a  boy  can  mark  off  10  or  more  acres  a  day 
by  this  method." 

Hutt    describes    the    following   method    of   planting 
small-fruits  in  an  orchard:  "The  bushes  were  arranged  so 


A  Mixed-Orchard  Plan 


217 


APPLE  TREE" 


loo 


10  S 


APPLE 
TREE 


BERRY  BUSHES 


APPLE 
TREE 


that  cultivation  may  be  given  both  ways  with  a  minimum 
amount  of  hand  hoeing.  The  accompanying  plan  (Fig.  64) 
shows  the  arrangement  of  the  trees  and  bushes.  The  trees 
are  planted  on  the  hexagonal  plan,  the  rows  being  30  feet 
apart  and  the  trees  35  feet  apart  in  the  rows,  the  trees  in 
one  row  alterna- 
ting with  those  in 
the  next.  By  this 
method  of  arrange- 
ment, 15  per  cent 
more  trees  can  be 
planted  to  the  acre 
than  by  the  ordi- 
nary method,  and 
yet  not  be  any 
more  crowded.  The 
bushes  are  6  feet 
apart  one  way  by 
5  feet  10  inches  the 
other.  At  present 
no  trees  are  nearer 


than  9  feet  to  the 
apple  trees.  As  the 
trees  increase  in 
size,  those  bushes 
within  the  circles, 


Feet 


9  "Ft,         6  Ft.     6  Ft.          9  Ft. 
FIG.  64.   Setting  small-fruits  in  an  orchard. 


as  shown  on  the  plan,  will  be  the  first  to  be  removed." 


THE   FAMILY  FRUIT-PLANTATION 

It  is  impossible  to  give  much  specific  advice  for  the 
plan  of  a  family  fruit-garden,  because  tastes  are  so  per- 
sonal, and  the  amount  and  character  of  land  at  disposal 


218 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


are  so  various.  One  can  only  say  that  the  varieties 
should  be  chosen  for  best  dessert  and  culinary  quali- 
ties, for  succession  through  the  season,  and  the  area  so 

10  RODS 


i 

rd. 


2rds. 


2rds. 


2rds. 


FIG.  65.  Suggestion  for  a  fruit-garden  of  one  acre. 

planted  that  the  rows  run  the  long  way  of  the  land  to 
allow  of  easy  cultivation  with  a  horse.  In  general,  it  will 
not  be  necessary  to  provide  for  cultivation  both  ways. 
The  accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  65)  suggests  how  an 


Plan  for  Home  Grounds 


219 


area  of  1  acre  may  be  laid  out  in  a  fruit-garden  for  the 
home  supply.  For  a  number  of  years,  other  plants — as 
vegetables, 
small-fruits,  or 
dwarf  apples  or 
dwarf  pears — 
may  be  grown, 
not  only  be- 
tween the  rows, 
but  between 
the  trees  in  the 
row. 

The  dwarf 
apples  and 
pears  find  a 
special  and  ad- 
vantageous use 
in  the  home  gar- 
den, although, 
if  there  is  room, 
a  few  trees 
of  standards 
should  be  grown 
to  lessen  the 
chances  of  fail- 
ure and  to  sup- 
ply some  of  the 
staple  varieties 
in  larger  quan- 
tity. 

The  vege- 
table-garden 
and  fruit  -  gar- 


VEOETABLC 

GARDEN 

40X80  FT. 


SCALE. 


20  FEET. 


FIG.  66.  Plan  for  home  grounds  that  comprise  a 
fruit-garden. 


220  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

den  may  be  combined  when  the  available  area  is  small. 
Corbett  says  that  an  area  60  by  80  feet  will  accomodate 
442  fruit-bearing  plants,  and  that  an  area  40  by  80  feet 
will  be  sufficient  for  a  good  variety  of  vegetables.  He 
gives  a  diagram  (Fig.  66),  and  the  following  key: 

Fruits. 

Thirty-two  grape-vines,  dispersed  at  intervals  of  10  feet  around 
the  entire  garden. 

Three  rows,  each  containing  six  trees,  dwarf  pears,  eighteen 
specimens  in  all  (rows  Nos.  2,  10,  14). 

One  row,  six  specimens,  peaches  (row  No.  4). 

One  row,  six  specimens,  cherries  (row  No.  8). 

One  row,  six  specimens,  dwarf  apples  (row  No.  6). 

One  row,  six  specimens,  plums  (row  No.  12). 

One  row,  twenty  specimens,  blackberries  (row  No.  1). 

Two  rows,  forty  specimens,  blackcaps  (rows  Nos.  3  and  5). 

Two  rows,  forty  specimens,  red  raspberries  (rows  Nos.  7  and  9). 

Three  rows,  300  specimens,  strawberries  (rows  Nos.  11, 13  and  15). 

Vegetables. 

One  row,  one-half  row  rhubarb,  one-half  row  asparagus  (occupy- 
ing 4  feet). 

One  row,  salsify  (\y%  feet). 

One  row,  parsnips  (IK  feet). 

Two  rows,  beets  (3  feet). 

One  row,  eggplants — plants  set  18  inches  apart — two  dozen  (3 
feet). 

Two  rows,  tomatoes — plants  set  2  feet  apart — two  dozen  (6  feet) . 

One  row,  summer  squash,  12  hills,  3  feet  apart  (3  feet). 

Two  rows,  cucumber,  24  hills,  3  feet  apart  (1  foot). 

Two  rows,  early  cabbage,  4  dozen  plants,  set  18  inches  apart 
(4  feet). 

Two  rows,  late  cabbage,  4  dozen  plants,  set  18  inches  apart 
(4  feet). 

One  row,  early  celery,  6  dozen  plants,  set  6  inches  apart  (2  feet). 

Eight  rows,  peas,  plant  in  double  rows,  4  inches  apart;  follow 
by  six  rows  late  celery,  thirty-six  dozen  plants  (16  feet). 


Home  Fruit-Garden  221 

Two  rows,  lima  beans,  four  dozen  hills,  18  inches  apart  (4  feet). 

Six  rows,  bunch  beans;  in  succession  sow  seeds  in  drills,  placing 
seeds  about  6  inches  apart  in  the  row;  follow  by  late  cabbage,  turnips 
or  spinach  (12  feet). 

Two  rows,  radishes,  four  sowings,  planted  in  double  rows  6 
inches  apart  (3  feet). 

Two  rows,  lettuce,  two  sorts,  adapted  for  early  and  late  use 
(3  feet). 

One  row,  parsley  and  peppergrass  (1^  feet). 

The  space  occupied  by  the  last  three  plants  may  be  given  over 
to  winter  squashes  by  planting  these  before  other  crops  are  off  the 
ground. 

The  satisfactions  in  a  home  fruit-garden  are  not  to 
be  measured  by  the  money  costs.  It  cannot  be  said  that 
fruit  can  be  bought  more  cheaply  than  it  can  be  grown  in 
the  garden,  for  the  market  does  not  supply  the  varieties 
or  the  quality  that  one  may  secure  from  his  own  plantation. 

It  is  desirable  that  a  fruit-garden  be  made  a  part  of  a 
landscape  design  of  a  place,  as  regularly  as  the  flower- 
garden,  vegetable-garden,  garage,  or  recreation  areas. 
(Page  34.) 

The  condensed  fruit-garden  requires  the  best  of  ferti- 
lizing and  of  care. 

MAPS  AND   RECORDS 

One  of  the  most  annoying  parts  of  fruit-growing  is 
keeping  track  of  the  varieties  that  inevitably  accumulate 
in  plantations  to  which  the  owner  gives  much  loving 
thought,  and  making  a  record  of  the  performance  of  indi- 
vidual trees,  vines  and  bushes. 

The  best  means  is  a  systematic  plat,  map  or  diagram 
of  the  plantation,  in  which  every  tree  or  every  row  of 
small-fruits  is  given  a  number.  It  is  well  to  designate  the 
rows  in  orchards  by  letters,  and  then  to  number  each 


222  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

tree  in  the  row,  beginning  with  number  one;  or,  some  pre- 
fer to  number  all  the  trees  in  the  plantation  consecutively. 
It  is  an  excellent  plan  for  the  grower  to  devote  a  large 
blank-book  or  record  to  each  plantation,  entering  the  plan 
of  the  area  in  the  earlier  pages,  and  then  recording  the 
yield  of  each  tree  or  each  row  on  consecutive  pages  devoted 
to  the  different  years.  Such  a  book  would  be  to  the 
orchard  what  the  Babcock  test  is  to  the  dairy, — a  means 
of  determining  the  profitable  and  unprofitable  individuals. 
If  such  a  record  were  kept,  it  would  not  be  many  years 
before  the  orchardist  would  be  experimenting  with  a 
goodly  number  of  his  trees  in  order  to  determine  how  to 
make  them  as  productive  as  are  the  best  ones. 

Labels. 

Of  labels  there  are  endless  devices,  but  no  label 
can  be  expected  to  last  in  good  condition  more  than 
six  or  eight  years.  For  temporary  or  annual  plants,  where 
little  horse  work  is  done,  the  commercial  garden  stakes, 
12  by  1J4  inches,  are  excellent.  These  cost,  when  painted 
and  made  of  soft,  clear  pine,  $5  to  $6  a  thousand.  For  a 
more  permanent  stake  label,  one  cut  from  clear  pine,  2 
feet  long,  3J^  inches  wide,  1J^  inches  thick,  and  sawed  to 
a  point,  is  one  of  the  best.  These  are  given  two  thin  coats 
of  white  lead,  care  being  taken  not  to  pile  them  on  their 
faces  until  thoroughly  dry,  to  avoid  a  rough  surface  for 
the  pencil.  The  record  may  be  made  by  a  large,  soft 
pencil,  like  a  carpenter's  pencil,  or  by  a  brush  and  black 
paint;  but  for  all  annual  crops  the  pencil  will  be  found 
more  serviceable.  At  the  end  of  the  season,  or  when  the 
record  becomes  dim,  a  thin  shaving  is  taken  off  the  face 
of  the  label,  it  is  repainted,  and  used  again.  The  label  is 
thick  enough  to  allow  of  many  annual  dressings,  while  the 


Labels  223 

lower  part  is  not  reduced,  and  it  therefore  lasts  for  many 
years  and  is  strong  enough  to  resist  the  shocks  of  cultivator 
and  whiffletrees.  For  ornamental  bushes,  this  large  label 
is  too  conspicuous,  and  for  this  purpose  a  pine  label 
1  ^2  inches  wide,  J/2  mch  thick,  and  18  or  20  inches  long  is 
excellent.  The  lower  half  is  soaked  in  a  strong  solution  of 
sulfate  of  iron  (copperas),  and,  after  drying,  in  lime-water, 
to  preserve  it. 

A  great  variety  of  labels  has  been  recommended  for 
trees,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  we  have  yet  found  the 
ideal  tally,  although  some  of  those  here  described  seem 
to  satisfy  most  needs.  Many  persons  like  zinc  labels  (No. 
11,.  Fig.  67),  cut  in  narrow  strips  from  a  sheet  of  the 
metal.  The  record  is  made  on  the  zinc  with  a  soft  lead- 
pencil,  and  the  label  is  then  wound  about  a  branch. 
Very  often  the  record  is  indistinct  on  the  zinc,  but  the 
chief  fault  is  the  inconspicuousness  of  the  label  itself.  It 
requires  much  searching  to  find  a  zinc  label  in  a  large  tree, 
and  this  objection  holds  with  almost  every  practicable 
tree  label  that  has  been  introduced,  even  with  the  3-  or  4- 
inch  pine  labels  that  are  common  in  the  market.  Patent 
zinc  and  copper  labels,  cut  from  very  thin  metal,  so  that 
the  record  can  be  made  by  the  impression  of  a  sharp  point 
or  style,  have  been  tried.  These  pretty  and  so-called 
indestructible  labels  are  furnished  with  an  eyelet  through 
which  the  wire  passes.  They  are  soon  broken  by  the  wind, 
and  in  a  year  nothing  is  likely  to  remain  of  them  but  a 
hole  hung  on  a  wire. 

A  good  label  is  the  device  shown  at  No.  3,  in  the  illus- 
tration (Fig.  67).  This  is  the  pine  ^'package  label," 
used  by  nurserymen,  6  inches  long  and  1J^  inches  wide. 
These  are  wired  with  stiff,  heavy,  galvanized  wire,  much 
like  that  used  for  pail  bales,  and  not  less  than  18  inches 


224 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


FIG.  67.  Various  types  of  tree-labels. 


Labels  225 

is  used  with  each  label.  Hooks  are  turned  in  the  ends  of 
the  wires  before  the  labels  are  taken  to  the  field.  A  pail 
of  pure  white  lead,  well  thinned  with  oil,  is  taken  to  the 
field  with  the  labels.  The  record  is  made  with  a  very 
soft  pencil,  the  label  is  dipped  into  the  paint,  the  wire  is 
placed  about  a  conspicuous  limb,  and  the  hooks  are  joined 
with  a  pair  of  pliers.  The  paint  at  first  almost  completely 
obscures  the  writing,  but  some  of  it  drips  off  and  the  re- 
mainder dries  in,  so  that  the  record  becomes  bright,  and 
the  soft  pencil  marks  are  indelibly  preserved,  while  the 
label  remains  white.  If  the  paint  is  brushed  on,  the  soft 
writing  will  be  blurred.  If  in  the  future  the  wood  becomes 
gray,  the  label  may  be  brightened  by  immersing  it  in  a  pot 
of  white  lead,  without  removing  it  from  the  tree.  The 
large  loop  of  wire  allows  of  the  growth  of  the  branch,  and 
the  label  hangs  so  low  that  it  can  be  seen  at  a  glance.  The 
heavy  stiff  wire  insures  the  safety  of  the  label  against  boys 
and  workmen.  It  cannot  be  removed  without  a  pair  of 
pincers.  The  label  is  large  enough  to  allow  of  a  complete 
record  of  the  name  of  the  variety,  the  place  of  purchase, 
age,  and  other  matters;  and  it  is  readily  found. 

The  various  labels  shown  in  Fig.  67,  are  as  follows:  Nos.  1 
and  2,  German  labels,  made  of  glazed  earthenware,  with  the  name 
colored  blue  and  sunken.  Strong  copper  wire,  coiled,  to  allow  of  the 
growth  of  the  limb,  holds  the  label  to  the  tree.  No.  3,  Cornell  label, 
described  above.  No.  4,  double  wooden  label,  consisting  of  two  com- 
mon wooden  labels  fastened  together.  The  name  is  written  on  the 
double  label,  as  in  any  other  label,  but  it  is  also  written  on  the  inside 
to  insure  permanence.  When  the  outside  writing  is  worn  off,  the 
label  is  opened  and  the  inside  is  still  bright.  The  label  is  secured 
to  the  tree  by  a  tack  or  small  nail,  as  shown  in  the  cut  at  the  right. 
The  label  is  seen  opened  in  the  picture  at  the  left.  Nos.  5  and  6,  zinc 
labels,  used  at  the  New  York  State  Experiment  Station,  Geneva. 
The  wire  is  driven  into  the  tree,  and  the  name  is  written  or 
printed  on  the  zinc  with  black  paint.  No.  7,  common  hand-made 


226 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


wooden  tag,  taken  from  an  old  tree  in  the  test  orchard  of  the  late 
Charles  Downing,  Newburgh,  N.  Y.   No.  8,  thin  copper  label,  with 
the  name  indented  into  the  metal  by  the  use  of  a  hard-pointed 
instrument.  Some  metal  labels  are  liable  to  tear  out 
at  the  hole  when  exposed  to  winds.    No.  9,  common 
painted  pine  label  used  by  nurserymen,  and  costing 
(without  the  copper  wire)  about  50  cents  a  thou- 
sand, for  the  common  size,  which  is  33^  inches  long. 
No.  10,  Lodeman's  label,  consists  of  a  tag  of  sheet 
lead  securely  fastened  to  a  coiled  brass  wire.   The 
wire  is  secured  to  the  body  of  the  tree  by  a  staple 
or  screw-eye,  and  it  is  expected  that  the 
wire  will  become  imbedded  in  the  trunk 
as  the  tree  grows.     No.  11,  common  zinc 
label  or  tally,  described  on  page  223. 

The  Fig.  68  is  Paddock's  vineyard  label 
(designed  by  W.  Paddock  then  of  the 
State  Experiment  Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y.). 
The  label  is  a  strip  of  heavy  zinc  secured 
to  a  stiff  galvanized  wire.  This  wire  or 
shank  is  provided  with  a  hook  at  the 
lower  end  and  a  half -hitch  near  its  middle, 
so  that  it  may  be  securely  adjusted  to  the 
wires  of  the  trellis,  holding  the  label  well 
above  the  foliage. 

Much  is  said  about  the  importance  of 
giving  attention  to  the  behavior  of  indi- 
vidual trees  and  bushes  in  a  fruit  planta- 


FIG.  68.  A  good  vineyard 
label. 


tion,  yet  there  is  seldom  any  available  record  of  them.  With  the 
refinements  of  the  fruit-growing  business,  attention  must  be  given 
to  this  subject;  and  maps  and  labels  will  then  be  indispensable. 


CHAPTER  VII 

SUBSEQUENT  CARE  OF  THE  FRUIT-PLANTATION 

Now  that  the  property  is  planted,  we  may  consider 
what  to  do  with  it.  The  main  general  practice'  is  tillage. 
This  is  to  be  the  basis  of  the  prosperity  of  the  enterprise, 
but  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  repeat  the  discussion  in 
Chapter  III. 

It  is  a  common  opinion  with  fruit-growers  that  very 
heavy  growth  is  opposed  to  fruitfulness;  and  yet  the 
plants  that  are  vigorous  and  strong  and  make  rapid 
growth  from  the  start  are  usually  the  most  productive. 
They  are  largest,  and  should  have  most  bearing  surface, 
and  the  fruit  should  be  large.  Just  where  lies  the  danger 
to  productiveness  of  too  rapid  growth,  if  the  danger  exists, 
is  not  easy  of  statement.  Very  heavy  pruning  of  old  trees 
is  reported  as  not  breaking  the  fruit-bearing  habit,  but  it 
is  commonly  supposed  to  have  the  effect  of  reducing  the 
set  of  fruit.  There  are  probably  many  conditions  and 
circumstances  that  modify  the  results. 

We  remember  that  if  the  roots  are  made  to  strike  far 
into  the  land  by  deep  plowing  for  the  first  few  years,  it 
may  not  be  necessary  to  plow  heavy  furrows  in  the  planta- 
tion in  later  years,  except  to  turn  under  cover-crops.  This 
can  be  accomplished  even  with  hard  clay  land.  Two 
orchards  on  very  hard  clay  of  uneven  surface,  in  six  years 
from  the  setting  of  the  trees,  were  in  such  condition  that 
heavy  plowing  was  no  longer  necessary,  and  the  spring  fit- 
ting of  the  land  was  done  with  spading-harrows  and  spring- 

(227) 


228  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

tooth  harrows,  and  the  subsequent  tilling  partly  with  a 
light  spike-tooth  harrow.  Of  course,  this  means  that  there 
must  be  no  delay  in  the  spring  work  in  the  orchard,  and 
no  years  of  neglect.  Weeds  are  not  allowed  to  appear; 
but  if  a  patch  should  get  a  start  now  and  then,  it  can  usu- 
ally be  destroyed  with  the  cultivator.  Perhaps  once  or 
twice  in  the  season  it  may  be  necessary  to  send  a  man 
through  the  orchard  with  a  hoe  to  take  the  weeds  away 
from  the  trees,  but  the  space  that  needs  such  hand  labor 
will  not  exceed  2  feet  in  diameter,  and  it  is  usually  very 
much  less.  This  has  been  accomplished  by  exercising 
great  care  to  plow  the  clay  when  it  is  in  such  condition 
that  it  pulverizes  when  it  is  worked,  and  by  the  incor- 
poration of  one  or  two  cover-crops. 

It  will  be  necessary  now  and  then  to  grow  cover-crops, 
and  the  land  will  then  be  regularly  plowed  in  spring  to 
turn  the  crop  under;  but  even  so,  it  may  not  be  the  desire 
to  secure  a  heavy  growth  of  cover-crop,  and  the  spring 
plowing  need  not  necessarily  be  deep  and  laborious.  If, 
however,  it  seems  to  be  necessary  to  plow  5  or  6  inches 
deep,  there  will  be  no  hesitation  in  doing  so,  for  the  roots 
are  deep  enough  to  escape  the  plow  if  the  plowman  is 

ordinarily  careful  about 
the  trees. 

It  is  not  necessarily 
a  misfortune  to  cut  the 
smaller  roots  with  the 
plow,  providing  only  a 
few  are  cut  in  any  year. 
In  other  words,  it  is  no 
doubt  safer  to  sever  a 
good  many  roots  H  inch, 

*  IQ.  69.  A  broken  grape-root  renewing  its  . 

connection  with  the  earth.  Or  SOmetmleS  6Ven  1 


Working  the  Land  229 

in  diameter,  than  not  to  plow  the  orchard  at  all.  The 
severed  roots  usually  send  out  numerous  branches  near 
their  ends,  and  these  branches  increase  the  foraging  power 
of  the  roots  in  soil  normally  laid  under  small  tribute. 
Figs.  69  and  70  are 
drawn  from  actual  speci- 
mens of  roots  that  were 
broken  by  the  plow.  It 
would  seem  as  if  the' 
absorbing  area  of  the 
root  had  been  actually 

increased,    for   the    many  FIQ>  70.  The  branching  of  a  broken 

small  roots  present  more  aPPie-root. 

surface  than  did  the  main  shaft  of  the  root.  It  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that  the  real  surface  of  the  original 
root  extended  far  beyond  the  present  point,  and  there  is 
no  way  of  telling  whether  the  adventitious  roots  actually 
present  more  surface  than  the  whole  of  the  original  root. 
This  breaking  of  the  small  roots  is  not  recommended,  but 
it  is  not  necessary  to  take  great  pains  to  avoid  it. 

The  particular  methods  of  caring  for  plantations  of 
small-fruits  can  scarcely  be  discussed  in  a  general  work  on 
fruit-growing,  but  it  may  be  said  that  a  deep  tillage 
with  a  spring-tooth  cultivator  (No.  9,  Fig.  16,  page  86) 
is  usually  sufficient  for  breaking  up  the  ground  in  spring 
among  bush-fruits,  if  the  land  is  clean  and  in  good  con- 
dition. If  the  land  is  soddy  or  infested  with  bad  weeds, 
however,  a  regular  plowing  may  be  necessary.  A  handy 
plow  for  such  plantations  is  one  of  the  type  shown  in  Fig. 
19,  page  96,  managed  by  a  single  horse.  The  manage- 
ment of  the  land  in  small-fruit  plantations  does  not  differ 
in  principle  from  the  management  of  orchard  lands,  and 
the  tools  are  of  the  same  general  kind,  except  smaller 


230  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

and  usually  adapted  to  a  single  horse.  If  the  rows  are 
far  enough  apart,  however — as  they  usually  are  in  black- 
berries and  black  raspberries — it  may  be  necessary  in 
hard  lands  to  hitch  two  horses  to  such  a  tool  as  the 
spring-tooth  cultivator. 

It  is  commonly  a  matter  of  a  few  years  thoroughly  to 
learn  one's  soil  and  climate,  after  moving  to  a  new  farm. 
The  farmer  has  a  local  and  personal  problem  to  apprehend 
and  to  solve.  He  should  not  be  discouraged,  therefore, 
if  he  does  not  secure  the  desired  results  from  the  treat- 
ment of  his  land  within  the  first  two  or  three  years.  He 
must  look  after  the  work  himself.  Even  though  he  have 
a  perfect  understanding  of  the  subject  and  the  intention 
to  do  the  best  by  his  plantation,  he  will  very  likely  fail 
of  satisfactory  results  if  he  leaves  the  management  of  the 
work  to  others. 

Aside  from  the  general  practice  of  tillage,  there  are 
many  special  and  incidental  practices,  some  of  which  may 
be  discussed  briefly,  after  we  have  considered  such  essen- 
tials as  pruning,  thinning  and  frost-protection. 

PRUNING 

The  subject  of  pruning  cannot  be  understood  until 
the  essential  principles  of  the  practice  are  clearly  appre- 
hended. It  is  often  said  that  pruning  is  unnecessary; 
this  is  true  if  one  desires  to  grow  brush.  If  he  desires  to 
grow  fruit,  and  particularly  good  fruit,  he  must  bring 
about  the  proper  conditions  for  it;  and  one  of  these  neces- 
sary conditions  is  a  plant  properly  thinned  and  under 
control. 

The  only  proper  pruning  is  one  that  is  applied  in 
something  like  the  same  proportion  every  year,  and  that 


The  Aim  in  Pruning 


231 


begins  the  very  year  in  which 
the  plants  are  put  into  the 
ground.  Trees  alternately 
neglected  and  heavily  pruned 
are  kept  in  a  condition  of  upset 
that  is  likely  to  interfere  with 
the  best  satisfaction  in  fruit- 


FlG.  71.  Fruit-spur  forming  at  the  side. 


growing. 

The  aim  in  pruning 

is  to  keep  the  top  open, 

to    remove    superfluous 

and  interfering  parts,  to 

maintain    a    size   and 

shape    that    admits    of 

easy  spraying  and  fruit- 

gathering  and  other  labor, 

to  eliminate  diseases  and  injured  branches,  to  encourage 

the  fruit-bearing  wood.   How  to  accomplish  these  results 

is  to  be  determined  by  practice.    A  good  pruner  has  "an 

eye"  for  the  work,  and 
he  undertakes  it  care- 
fully as  an  artisan 
skilled  in  the  opera- 
tion. Pruning  is  not 
carpentering. 

It  is  easy  to  overdo 
pruning.  It  is  not 
primarily  the  removal 
of  wood,  but  the  work- 
ing out  of  a  purpose. 
Pruning  is  mostly  for 


FIG  72  Shoot  grown  too  long  for  probable 
fruit-bearing.  There  will  be  an  alternation  of 
fruit-bearing  on  this  spur. 


training 

, 
trCCS,       and 


Ul     VOUng 
t( 


232 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


twig  is  bent  the  tree's  inclined."  ' 'Pruning  for  fruit"  and 
"pruning  for  wood"  are  refinements  of  the  art  that  find 
little  place  in  the  usual  commercial  plantation. 

The  bearing  wood. 

Pruners  should  always  under- 
stand how  the  fruit-bearing  wood  is 
borne.  In  the  cane-fruits  (raspberry, 
blackberry,  dewberry),  the  fruit  is 
borne  on  canes  that  grew  the  previ- 


FIG.  73.  Terminal  fruit-bud  forming  on  an 
apple  shoot. 


'J 


FIG.  74.  Peach  -  buds 
forming  in  the  axil  of  a 
single  leaf.  The  central  one 
is  a  leaf-bud. 


ous  year;  and  when  this  fruit  is  being  borne,  other  canes 
are  growing  from  the  crown  of  the  plant  to  bear  the 
fruit  the  succeeding  year :  therefore,  the  fruiting  canes  are 
removed  when  the  fruit  is  off,  and  only  a  limited  number 
of  canes  is  allowed  to  grow  for  the  next  year's  crop.  Goose- 
berries and  currants  also  bear  on  canes,  but  these  canes 
may  not  bear  until  the  second  year  and  they  continue  to 
bear  profitably  for  two  or  three  years.  Grapes  produce 


Fruit-buds 


233 


FIG.  75.  Peach-buds  forming  with  three  leaves. 
The  central  bud  is  a  leaf-bud. 


their  fruit  only  from  canes  that  grew  the  preceding  year. 

The  tree-fruits  may  bear  on  the  preceding  year's  axial 

growth   or   on   short 

spurs.    Most  of  them 

bear  both  ways,  but 

the  larger  part  of  the 

fruitage    of     apples, 

pears,  plums,  cherries, 

apricots,  is  on  spurs. 

Peaches    bear    pro- 
fusely   on    the    last 

year's  axial  or  straight 

shoots,  but  they  also 

bear  on    short-lived 

spurs.    Figs.  71  to  76 

show  fruit-bearing  in 

apple  and  peach. 

In  the  northern  states,  the  best  time  for  pruning,  in 

general,  is  late  winter  and  very  early  spring.   It  is  best  not 

to  prune  when  the  wood  is 
frozen  hard,  although  there  is 
no  physiological  injury  to  a 
dormant  tree  thereby.  The 
wounds  should  be  made  close 
to  the  branch  or  trunk,  and  no 
stubs  should  be  left.  Large 
wounds — of  2  to  3  inches  and 

1  W    r'Wi      \1  'K      above — may    be    Painted    or 
>  waxed    for    protection.     Well- 

mixed  paint  of  white  lead  and 
raw  linseed  oil  (colored,  if  one 
FIG.  76.   A  short  branch  or     desires),    applied    after    the 

fruit-spur  on  peach.    Central  bud  ,  n      i    •     i 

is  probably  a  leaf-bud.  wounds  are  well  dried  out,  is 


234 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


the  standard  dressing;  on  very  large  wounds,  it  should 
be  renewed  from  year  to  year.  All  wounds  should  be  made 
with  clean,  regular  cute,  without  hacking  or  splintering. 

The  kind  of  top. 

When  the  tree  is  planted,  the  grower  must  decide  how 
high  the  top  is  to  be  and  also  what  form;  and  then  all  the 

subsequent  pruning  must 
be  directed  consistently  to 
that  end.  In  the  old  apple 
orchards  of  the  East  and 
North,  the  tops  were  often 
too  high, — as  much  as  5  or 
6  feet.  It  is  just  as  easy  to 
make  them  too  low, — 1  to 
2  feet  (see  pages  189,  190). 
In  general  structure,  the 
tree  may  be  open-centered 
with  no  leader,  which  is  a 
favorite  form  for  peach 
trees;  or  it  may  be  two- 
storied,  with  the  trunk  con- 
tinued beyond  the  first 
scaffold  of  branches  or  at 
least  with  a  second  tier 
or  scaffold,  which  is  the  preferable  form  for  pears  and 
apples. 

The  illustrations  show  different  commendable  ideas 
in  pruning.  Fig.  77,  from  Stuart,  shows  an  apple  tree 
unpruned  and  pruned,  one  year  after  planting.  Figs.  78 
and  79  (Erwin  and  Bliss,  Iowa)  show  a  neglected 
young  tree  before  and  after  pruning.  Spreaders  have 
been  inserted  to  encourage  a  more  open  top.  Jarvis  gives 


FIG.  77.  An  apple  tree  one  year  after 
planting,  unpruned  and  pruned. 


Examples  of  Pruning 


235 


figures  (Figs.  80  and  81)  of  an  apple  tree  ten  years 
old  and  not  pruned  since  planting,  and  the  same  tree  after 
pruning  to  an  open  center.  This  is  for  New  England 
conditions.  Fig.  82  shows  a  good  old  orchard  tree;  and 
Fig.  83  what  Jarvis  considers  to  be  "an  ideal  Baldwin 
apple  tree/'  properly  trained  from  the  beginning,  with  a 


FIG.  78.    A  neglected  young  apple 
tree. 


FIG.  79.  The  tree  pruned  and 
branches  spread. 


low  head  and  broad -conical  shape.  P'ig.  84  shows  a 
peach  tree  at  bearing  age  of  good  top-form,  but  possessing 
a  crotch  that  is  likely  to  split;  and  Fig.  85  shows  an  unde- 
sirable formation  in  an  apple  tree.  Many  growers  are  now 
training  peaches  to  lower  heads  than  in  Fig.  84.  Fig.  86 
represents  a  good  Morello  cherry  at  young  bearing  age ;  and 


236 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


FIG.  80.  Ten-year-old  neglected  apple  tree. 
Connecticut. 


Fig.  87  a  sweet  cherry  (in  bloom)  but  with  more  main 
branches  than  necessary.  Fig.  88  is  a  successful  orchard 
in  Wyoming.  Fig.  89  shows  a  Duchess  apple  orchard 

hi  bearing  at  Ottawa, 

Ontario. 

What  to  remove. 

The  pruner  should 
remove  superfluous  and 
unnecessary  parts, — 
water  -  sprouts,  weak 
straggly  limbs,  diseased 
and  badly  injured  limbs, 
at  least  one  of  the 
limbs  when  two  cross 
and  rub,  hanging  limbs  that  are  much  in  the  way,  one 
of  badly  forking  limbs,  and  some  of  the  limbs  in  parts 
that  are  much  crowded.  Unless  it  is  desired  to  thin  the 
fruit,  the  fruit-spurs  should  be  protected;  and  also  the 
small  healthy  stocky  shoots  along  many  of  the  larger 
branches,  for  care  should  be  exercised  not  to  produce  long 

and  pole-like  parts. 


Renewing  old  trees  by 
pruning : '  'dehorning. ' ' 

Pruning  is  one  of 
the  legitimate  means 
of  renewing  neglected 
orchards;  but  aside 
from  this,  it  is  often 
advised  that  very  old 
and  weak  trees  be 
rejuvenated  by  cutting 


FIG.  81.  The  same  tree  thinned  and  pruned  to 
an  open  center. 


Remaking  Old  Tops 


237 


the  whole  top 
off  and  leaving 
horns  or  stubs 
1  to  3  feet  long. 
This  may  work, 
but  in  most  cases 
it  is  not  worth 
the  while.  It 
takes  too  long, 
the  results  are 
too  uncertain, 


FIG.  82.  A  good  apple  tree  of  the  old-fashioned  kind, 
with  a  trunk  4  to  5  feet  high. 


and  probably  the  old  tree  will  not  pay  for  the  trouble. 
The  remaking  of  a  young  or  middle-aged  tree  by  such 
operation  when  it  has  been  broken  by  ice  or  overbearing 
or  injured  by  winter  or  by  fire  is  another  matter,  and 
may  be  in  every  way  worth  the  effort. 


FIG.  83.  A  low-headed  apple  tree  of  good  form  and  proportion. 


238 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


Heading-in. 

The  question  of  heading-in  of  trees  is  commonly  mis- 
understood, and  there  are  likely  to  be  many  opinions.  It 
is  a  special  practice.  Two  considerations  may  help  the 
grower  think  out  the  problem  for  himself. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  largely  a  question  of  the  type 
of  training  that  the  grower  prefers;  that  is,  every  good 


.  84.  A  peach  tree,  at  bearing  age,  but  with  a  bad  crotch. 

fruit-grower  will  set  before  himself  a  certain  conception 
as  to  form  of  tree,  and  he  will  bend  all  his  energies  uni- 
formly and  consecutively  to  the  working  out  of  this  idea 
throughout  all  the  years  of  the  plantation.  If  his  ideal  is 
for  trees  with  round  and  dense  heads,  then  he  will,  of 
course,  head-in  the  stock  from  year  to  year;  if,  however, 
he  sets  for  himself  the  ideal  of  a  tree  with  the  natural 
form  and  open  head,  he  will  not  head-in,  as  a  rule.  Which- 
ever purpose  the  grower  sets  should  be  worked  out  sys- 


Heading-in 


239 


FIG.  85.  A  mature  apple  tree,  showing  scaf- 
fold    limbs    growing    from    same    plane,    and 


tematically  and  logically  from  first  to  last.  The  heading-in 
ideal  is  always  set  for  dwarf  trees. 

The  other  factor  that  chiefly  determines  the  question 
of  heading-in  is  the  checking  of  redundant  growth  while 
the  plants  are  young. 
As  a  rule,  young  trees 
grow  more  thrifty  and 
upright  than  do  old 
ones,  and  the  grower 
should  not  be  misled 
into  thinking  that  his 
trees  will  keep  up  their 
present  pace  after 
they  have  come  into 
maturity  and  bearing. 
Kieffer  pears,  for  ex-  Uable  to  split: 
ample,  make  a  very  tall  and  narrow  growth  for  the  first 
two  or  three  years,  as  if  headed  for  heaven  (but  they  are 
not) ;  and  when  the  bearing  time  arrives,  this  enormous 
growth  is  checked  and  the  tree  spreads.  However,  in 
such  cases,  it  may  be  advisable  to  head-in  the  tree  for  a 
time,  or  until  the  period  of  maturity  begins  to  arrive.  This 

heading-in,    how- 

*^*S»r 


ever,  is  not  the 
fundamental  cor- 
rective of  the 
difficulty;  in  fact, 
it  rather  aug- 
ments the  diffi- 
culty. It  is  a 
question,  there- 
fore, whether  it"  is 
better  to  prevent 


FIG.  86.  Morello  cherry. 


240 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


redundant  growth  by  withholding  tillage  and  fertilizers, 
rather  than  to  produce  it  and  then  to  take  it  off. 

If,  therefore,  the  grower  wants  headed-in  trees,  he 
should  have  them.  He  is  then  able  to  plant  his  trees  closer 
together.  The  habitual  heading-in  is  practised  only  with 
plums  and  peaches  as  a  rule  in  the  northern  states.  The 

fact  that  relatively 
very  few  persons 
grow  headed-in  trees 
is  indication  enough 
that  it  is  not  a  gen- 
eral practice  and  is 
not  essential  to  suc- 
cess. For  general 
purposes,  the  free- 
growing  tree  is  to  be 
preferred,  with  only 
such  shortening  of 
some  of  the  branches 
as  will  keep  the  plant 
in  shape.  The  head- 
ing-in is  performed 
at  the  same  time  as 
other  pruning.  If 
the  annual  growth  is 


FIG.  87.  A  sweet  cherry  at  bearing  age. 


vigorous,  perhaps  one-half  of  it  is  cut  away  by  being 
headed  back. 

Dwarf  apples  and  pears  are  always  kept  within  bounds 
— that  is,  kept  dwarf — by  heading-in.  After  the  plant  has 
reached  its  full  height — in  five  to  eight  years — it  is  not 
allowed  to  grow  any  taller,  or  at  least  to  increase  in  height 
very  slowly.  This  means  that  nearly  all  the  annual  growths 
in  length  are  to  be  removed,  and  the  fruit-bearing  is  to 


Pruning  and  Trimming 


241 


depend  on  the  spurs.  The  top  should  be  thinned  at  the 
same  time  of  weak  and  soft  shoots,  to  allow  the  fruit-spurs 
room  and  light  for  best  development. 


THE   THINNING   OF   THE   FRUIT 

The  thinning  of  fruit  for  the  purpose  of  improving 
that  which  remains. is  a  practice  much  advised  but  too  little 


FIG.  88.  A  Wyoming  apple-orchard,  showing  form  of  trees. 

followed.  It  has  been  demonstrated  time  and  again  that 
no  work  in  fruit-raising  is  more  important  than  this  thin- 
ing,  if  one  desires  to  realize  the  most  from  his  fruit.  It 
results  not  only  in  a  much  finer  product,  but  it  is  also 
a  means  of  destroying  the  insect-infested  and  diseased 
specimens,  and  of  saving  the  energies  and  vitality  of 
the  tree.  Persons  complain  that  the  thinning  of  fruit  is 
expensive  and  laborious,  and  this  is  true;  but  it  is  a  fair 
question  whether  there  is  anything  worth  the  having  of 


242 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


which  the  same  may  not  be  said.  The  fruit  must  all  be 
picked  sooner  or  later,  and  it  does  not  cost  very  much 
more  to  pick  it  early  in  the  season  than  to  pick  it  late;  in 
fact,  much  fruit  not  worth  picking  in  the  fall  might  have 
been  eminently  worth  the  labor  if  the  trees  had  been 


Fia.  89.  Duchess  apple-orchard  in  Canada. 

thinned  in  the  early  summer.  The  practice  is  now  assum- 
ing very  special  importance  because  of  the  rigid  and  high- 
class  systems  of  grading  fruits  that  are  being  adopted  by 
shipping  associations. 

There  are  two  general  methods  of  thinning  fruits: 
One  is  by  pruning,  by  means  of  which  the  superfluous 
branches,  or  even  the  fruit-spurs  themselves,  are  removed; 
the  other  is  the  direct  picking  of  the  redundant  fruits. 
While  pruning  may  accomplish  much,  it  is  not  sufficient 
when  the  best  fruit  is  wanted. 

There  is  no  reason  in  the  nature  of  things  why  trees 
should  not  bear  annually;  but  the  formation  of  the  fruit- 


The  Thinning  of  Fruits  243 

spur  is  usually  such  as  to  preclude  the  production  of  the 
fruit  on  the  same  spur  every  year.  The  philosophy  of  the 
thinning  of  fruit,  therefore,  is  that  one  spur  shall  bear 
one  year,  and  another  spur  the  next.  This  means  that 
when  fruit  is  thinned,  it  should  be  the  object  to  remove 
it  wholly  from  some  spurs  in  order  that  they  may  produce 
fruit-buds  for  the  following  year.  In  those  regions  in 
which  certain  fruits  are  systematically  thinned,  the  crop 
is  obtained  with  great  uniformity  every  year.  This  is 
especially  true  of  peaches.  There  is  no  reason  why  the 


FIG.  90.  Apples  in  a  cluster;  to  be  thinned. 

same  should  not  be  said  of  other  kinds  of  fruits,  and  for 
every  fruit-region. 

Thinning  the  apple. 

There  is  no  dispute  of  the  value  of  thinning  for  peaches, 
dwarf  pears  and  a  few  choice  fruits,  but  it  has  been  ques- 
tioned whether  the  same  or  similar  methods  can  be  profi- 
tably applied  to  the  apple.  The  boxing  of  apples,  however, 


244  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

is  forcing  the  question.  When  choice  fruit  is  to  be  grown, 
the  practice  will  be  necessary  if  the  set  of  fruit  is  heavy, 
if  some  of  it  tends  to  grow  in  clusters,  and  particularly 

if  fertility  and 
moisture  are  not 
well  supplied. 
Some  varieties 
tend  to  grow  in 
clusters,  as  the 
Chenango  (Fig. 
90),  and  these 
should  always  be 
reduced  to  one 
fruit  (Fig.  91). 

FIG.  91.  Only  one  apple  should  remain  of  the  cluster.  'TVipr.p    havp 

been  no  long-continued  experiments  hi  this  country  on 
the  thinning  of  apples.  One  of  the  standard  investigations 
is  by  the  State  Experiment  Station  at  Geneva,  New  York, 
under  the  direction  of  S.  A.  Beach.  He  reports  as  follows 
(Bull.  No.  239.): 

Tests  are  here  reported  on  thinning  apples  in  June  and  July 
during  a  period  of  four  years.  Mature  trees  of  Baldwin,  Rhode 
Island  Greening  and  Hubbardston  were  included  in  the  tests. 
These  trees  stood  in  a  good  commercial  orchard.  They  were  well 
cared  for  and  were  all  similarly  treated  except  that  some  had  their 
fruit  thinned  while  others  did  not.  The  thinning  was  usually  done 
when  the  fruit  had  grown  to  about  1^  inches  in  diameter.  Obser- 
vations were  made  on  the  effect  of  thinning  upon  the  color,  size 
and  market  value  of  the  fruit  and  upon  the  amount  and  regularity 
of  fruit-production.  Some  data  were  obtained  for  a  comparison  of 
different  amounts  of  thinning,  but  the  results  are  not  regarded  as 
conclusive. 

Color. — When  the  trees  were  well  filled  with  fruit,  thinning 
generally  improved  the  color.  At  harvest-time  the  various  hues 
were  heightened  and  tended  to  be  more  brilliant  on  fruit  from  thinned 


Thinning  the  Apple  245 

than  from  corresponding  unthinned  trees.  Where  the  fruit  set 
sparsely  before  it  was  thinned,  the  thinning  had  no  appreciable 
influence  on  its  color. 

Size. — Whenever  the  trees  bore  well,  thinning  had  the  effect  of 
increasing  the  size  of  the  fruit.  This  occurred  with  Baldwin  and 
Hubbardston  more  often  than  with  Greening,  which  may  be  ac- 
counted for  by  the  fact  that  the  Greening  trees  did  not  carry  any 
crops  so  heavy  as  the  heaviest  crops  of  Hubbardston  and  of  Baldwin. 

Market  value. — The  intrinsic  value  of  the  apples  from  the 
consumer's  standpoint  was  generally  increased  by  thinning,  the 
thinned  fruit  being  usually  superior  in  size,  color  and  general  quality. 
The  thinned  fruit,  as  a  rule,  was  better  adapted  than  the  unthinned 
for  making  fancy  grades,  for  marketing  in  boxes,  etc.  Where  such 
ways  of  marketing  can  be  advantageously  used,  the  thinned  fruit 
should  bring  an  increase  in  price  corresponding  to  its  superiority 
in  real  value.  But  where  it  must  be  put  upon  the  ordinary  market 
in  barrels  there  is  less  chance  for  the  thinned  fruit  to  sell  at  sufficient 
advance  over  the  unthinned  to  pay  for  thinning,  especially  if  the 
thinned  fruit  cannot  be  furnished  in  large  quantities. 

Amount  and  regularity  of  fruit-production. — In  these  experi- 
ments the  practice  of  thinning  the  fruit  did  not  appear  to  cause  any 
material  change  either  in  the  amount  or  the  regularity  of  fruit- 
production. 

Methods  of  thinning. — No  exact  rule  for  thinning  apples  should 
be  laid  down.  The  requirements  vary  with  the  different  individual 
trees  and  with  the  same  tree  in  different  seasons.  The  amount  of 
thinning  should  be  suited  to  the  conditions  as  shown  by  the  age  and 
condition  of  the  tree,  by  the  amount  of  fruit  which  has  set,  and  by 
the  distribution  of  the  fruit  on  the  tree.  In  thinning  apples,  all 
wormy  and  otherwise  inferior  specimens  should  first  be  removed 
and  no  more  than  one  fruit  from  each  cluster  should  be  allowed  to 
remain.  After  this  is  done,  if  there  is  a  full  set  of  fruit,  greater  im- 
provement in  the  grade  may  be  expected  from  thinning  to  6  inches 
than  to  4  inches  apart. 

Does  it  pay  to  thin  apples? — The  reply  of  Mr.  Wilson,  a  practical 
fruit-grower,  in  whose  orchard  these  tests  were  made,  is  in  effect 
that  where  there  is  a  general  crop  of  apples,  the  set  full,  the  chance 
for  small  apples  great  and  widespread,  it  would  pay  to  thin  enough 
to  insure  good-sized  fruit;  otherwise  not,  except  to  protect  the  tree. 

Methods  of  removing  the  fruit. — No  way  of  jarring  or  raking 


246  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

off  the  fruit  is  advised  in  thinning  apples,  since  by  these  methods  all 
grades  are  removed  indiscriminately.  Hand  work  is  best.  It  per- 
mits selection  of  superior,  and  rejection  of  all  inferior,  specimens. 

Time  to  thin. — The  experiments  in  thinning  apples  and  other 
fruits  lead  to  the  opinion  that  early  thinning  gives  best  results. 
Begin  with  apples  within  three  or  four  weeks  after  the  fruit  sets, 
even  if  the  June  drop  is  not  yet  completed. 

Cost  of  thinned  as  compared  with  unthinned  apples. — The  cost 
of  thinning  mature  trees  which  are  well  loaded  should  not  exceed 
50  cents  a  tree,  and  probably  would  average  less  than  that.  Although 
a  given  number  of  fruits  can  be  thinned  faster  than  an  equal  number 
can  be  picked  when  ripe,  it  has  required  about  as  much  time  to  thin 
a  tree  as  it  has  to  harvest  the  ripe  fruit.  Thinned  apples  can  be 
graded  more  rapidly  than  an  equal  amount  of  unthinned  apples. 
Thinned  apples  can  be  handled  more  economically  than  unthinned 
apples  because  they  have  proportionately  less  of  those  grades  which 
form  the  least  profitable  part  of  the  crop,  namely,  the  No.  2's,  the 
drops  and  the  culls. 

Batchelor  makes  the  following  comments  on  the  thin- 
ing  of  apples  in  Utah  (Circ.  No.  12,  Utah  Exp.  Sta.) : 

The  actual  methods  to  be  used  in  this  operation  will  vary  some- 
what with  the  conditions,  such  as  soil,  age  of  trees,  varieties  and 
methods  of  irrigation  and  pruning.  The  fruit-grower  should  experi- 
ment and  learn  the  best  methods  to  follow  under  his  conditions. 
Some  people  thin  to  a  definite  number  of  boxes  on  a  certain-aged 
tree.  This  may  be  determined  on  one  or  two  trees  by  actually  count- 
ing the  apples.  These  counted  trees  may  then  be  used  as  models,  so 
to  speak,  and  thin  the  others  accordingly.  Other  growers  have 
learned  by  experience  the  proper  distance  apples  should  be  from 
each  other  on  the  tree  if  they  are  to  reach  a  marketable  size.  For 
the  past  two  years,  in  thinning  Jonathans  to  a  minimum  distance  of 
4  inches,  on  eight-  and  nine-year-old  trees,  there  were  still  too  many 
apples  remaining  for  their  maximum  development.  A  minimum 
distance  of  5  to  6  inches  would  no  doubt  have  given  better  results 
under  the  existing  conditions.  Gano  trees  nine  years  old,  thinned 
to  one  fruit  on  a  spur,  with  the  spurs  a  minimum  distance  of  about 
6  inches,  gave  good  results. 

The  above  experience  may  serve  as  a  guide  in  helping  each 


Thinning  the  Apple  247 

grower  to  determine  the  proper  method  to  follow  under  each  in- 
dividual case.  Certain  thinning  experiments  have  been  carried  on 
by  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station,  in  which  case  the  fruit  was  left 
the  minimum  distance  of  8  inches.  This  seemed  to  give  the  best 
results  under  the  conditions.  It  is  often  suggested  that  pruning 
may  be  substituted  for  thinning.  To  be  sure,  pruning  thins  out  the 
fruit-buds  very  materially,  but  it  can  hardly  take  the  place  of 
thinning.  Some  relief  must  be  had  for  the  crowded  cluster  on  the 
individual  branches,  and  again,  such  severe  pruning  as  would  prop- 
erly reduce  the  crop  on  a  bearing  apple  tree  would  likely  be  too 
severe  pruning  otherwise. 

For  the  best  results,  the  thinning  operation  should  commence 
immediately  after  the  June  drop.  The  work  should  be  done  while 
the  apples  are  1  to  13^  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  only  natural  to 
expect  that  the  sooner  the  remaining  apples  are  accorded  the  entire 
strength  and  nourishment  of  the  tree,  the  better  the  results.  Broken 
'limbs  may  be  averted  if  the  thinning  is  done  in  August,  but  the  other 
benefits  will  not  be  so  pronounced  as  though  the  work  had  been 
done  at  an  early  stage  in  the  fruit's  development.  In  other  words, 
less  of  the  tree's  energy  will  be  thrown  away  and  more  diverted  to 
the  proper  channels  if  the  thinning  is  done  early  in  the  season. 

Concerning  tools  for  this  work,  some  varieties  like  the  Gano  and 
Ben  Davis  are  easily  thinned  by  hand,  while  varieties  with  short 
fruit-spurs  are  not  so  readily  handled  this  way,  and  the  work  may 
be  hastened  by  the  use  of  a  small  shear  made  especially  for  this 
purpose.  In  any  case,  care  should  be  used  not  to  break  or  injure 
the  fruit-spurs  in  the  operation.  Very  few  fruit-spurs  will  be  broken 
by  the  careful  worker  if  the  spur  is  grasped  firmly  in  one  hand  while 
the  apples  are  removed  with  the  other.  An  upward  and  backward 
twist  of  fruit  will  loosen  the  stem  from  the  spur  without  disturbing 
the  remaining  fruit  or  breaking  the  spur.  One  or  two  apples  are 
often  removed  from  a  cluster  in  this  way,  leaving  the  remaining 
apple  undisturbed.  Careless  workers  who  persist  in  pulling  oft  the 
fruit  should  not  be  tolerated,  as  this  practice  loosens  much  of  the 
remaining  fruit  and  breaks  off  many  spurs.  A  light  picking  ladder 
will  hasten  the  work  with  the  older  trees,  and  the  entire  bearing 
surface  may  be  easily  reached. 

The  cost  of  this  work  is  only  slight,  compared  with  the  increased 
returns.  The  actual  time  in  thinning  will  be  saved  at  harvest  time 
in  sorting  the  crop.  If,  however,  full  time  is  charged  to  this  thinning 


248 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


work,  the  cost  should  not  exceed  1J^  to  2  cents  a  box  of  harvested 
fruit.  In  case  of  the  Gano  variety,  which  is  more  readily  thinned 
than  some  other  sorts,  the  cost  will  hardly  exceed  1  cent  a  box,  on 
low-headed  trees. 

Herrick,  in  Colorado,  also  reports  marked  results  with 
the  Winesap  (Bull.  No.  170,  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.) : 

Thinning  of  the  mature  Winesap  tree  pays  in  money  returns 
the  first  year.  The  more  evenly  distributed  the  fruit  on  the  tree, 
the  more  uniform  will  be  the  size  and  color  of  the  pack.  Winesaps 
respond  to  thinning  by  increased  size  and  better  color  when  thinned 
as  late  as  July  20.  The  earlier  thinning  can  be  done,  the  better  will 
be  the  returns  from  the  fruit  sold  and  the  greater  will  be  the  vitality 
of  the  tree.  The  best  results  are  attained  in  thinning  an  old  Wine- 
sap  tree,  by  leaving  the  apples  9  to 
10  inches  apart.  (Fig.  92.)  Proper 
pruning,  and  keeping  the  trees  a 
proper  distance  from  each  other, 
will  facilitate  thinning.  Systematic, 
annual,  uniform  thinning,  done  from 
the  time  the  trees  come  into  bear- 
ing, should  have  much  to  do  in 
securing  an  annual  crop,  thereby 
doing  away  with  the  so-called 
"off-year"  bearing  of  some  of  the 
apple  varieties. 


Thinning  other  fruits. 

Maynard  reports  experi- 
ments in  thinning  plums,  from 
which  there  were  marked 
gains.  "A  distinct  advantage 
gained  by  thinning  is  the 
appreciable  decrease  in  the 
ravages  of  fungous  diseases 
and,  to  a  small  extent,  of  insect 
pests.  This  is  especially  notice- 


FIG.  92.  Three-foot  branch  of 
Winesap  before  and  after  thin- 
ning. 


Thinning  the  Fruits  249 

able  in  the  case  of  monilia,  or  brown  fruit-rot,  which  often 
ruins  the  peach  or  plum  crop  in  wet  seasons,  while  the 
specimens  of  fruit  attacked  by  the  curculio  were  largely 
removed  in  thining." 

Good  results  have  been  reported  in  thinning  of  cane- 
fruits.  Experiments  at  the  Cornell  Station  with  rasp- 
berries and  blackberries  failed,  however,  to  give  such 
specific  results,  as  reported  by  Card:  "To  test  the  feasi- 
bility of  thinning  berries,  rows  of  Cuthbert  raspberry  and 
Early  Cluster  blackberry  were  thinned  by  clipping  off 
the  tips  of  most  of  the  clusters,  and  also  by  reducing 
the  number  of  clusters,  especially  in  the  raspberry.  The 
result  was  not  encouraging,  for  the  eye  could  detect  no 
increase  of  size  in  the  berries  on  thinned  plants,  and  as 
the  principal  object  was  to  increase  the  size  and  attrac- 
tiveness of  the  fruit,  it  seems  to  have  failed  of  its  purpose. 
It  should  be  said,  however,  that  the  season  was  favorable 
for  berries,  and  the  crop  was  very  fine.  In  a  very  dry 
season,  or  with  varieties  much  inclined  to  overbear,  the 
result  might  be  different.  In  general,  however,  the  thin- 
ing  can  be  managed  well  enough  and  much  more  cheaply 
by  regulating  the  amount  of  bearing  wood  at  the  annual 
spring  pruning." 

It  is  not  probable  that  the  thinning  of  the  bush-fruits 
will  pay  as  a  rule,  inasmuch  as  they  are  not  closely  graded 
or  sold  by  the  size  of  the  berry.  Nor  are  cherries  thinned. 
Grapes  grown  for  table  use  may  probably  be  thinned  with 
good  results.  If  it  pays  to  thin  apples,  it  ought  also  to  pay 
to  thin  pears. 

How  to  thin. 

The  thinning  of  tree-fruits  is  performed  in  essentially 
the  same  way.  as  the  fruits  are  picked;  that  is,  the  fruits 


250  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

are  taken  off  by  hand,  and  are  then  dropped  to  the  ground, 
where  they  may  either  be  allowed  to  lie,  or,  if  they  are 
infested  with  insects  or  disease,  may  be  raked  up  and 
burned.  Methods  of  thinning  apples  have  been  discussed 
(pages  244  to  248).  It  is  customary  to  thin  the  fruits  as 
soon  as  the  dangers  of  spring  frosts  and  other  early  acci- 
dents are  past,  but  before  they  have  become  of  sufficient 
size  to  be  a  tax  on  the  tree.  Peaches  are  usually  thinned 
when  they  are  about  the  size  of  a  small  hickorynut  (that 
is,  about  the  size  of  the  end  of  one's  thumb),  and  apples 
from  that  size  until  they  are  twice  or  sometimes  even 
thrice  as  large.  Various  devices  have  been  suggested  for 
the  thinning  of  fruit,  but  they  are  mostly  impracticable, 
because  they  do  not  discriminate  between  good  and  poor 
fruit,  do  not  leave  the  fruit  well  distributed,  and  are  very 
likely  to  break  off  the  spurs.  Some  of  the  implements 
figured  on  page  377  may  be  used  in  special  cases. 

It  requires  more  discrimination  and  judgment  to  thin 
fruit  properly  than  to  pick  it.  In  the  thinning  of  peaches, 
it  is  a  good  rule  to  allow  none  of  the  fruits  to  hang  closer 
than  4  to  6  inches  of  each  other.  This  means  that  in  years 
of  very  heavy  setting,  fully  two-thirds  of  all  the  fruits  are 
removed  in  June.  In  many  parts  of  the  country  this 
thinning  is  systematically  done,  and  it  has  in  all  such 
cases  come  to  be  regarded  as  an  indispensable  element 
in  successful  fruit-growing.  No  reliable  estimates  of  the 
cost  of  thinning  fruit  can  be  given,  because  so  much  de- 
pends on  the  form  and  pruning  of  the  tree  and  the  quantity 
of  fruit  to  be  removed.  The  result  is  also  greatly  influ- 
enced by  the  character  of  the  workmen  and  the  price  paid 
for  labor.  Full-grown  peach  trees  may  be  thinned  for  20 
to  50  cents  each.  Apple  trees  twenty-five  and  thirty 
years  old  have  been  well  thinned  for  40  to  90  cents  each. 


Frost-Protection  251 

PROTECTING   PLANTATIONS   FROM   FROST 

Having  considered  (in  Chapter  II)  the  relations  of 
location,  site  and  windbreaks  to  cold  and  frost,  we  may 
address  ourselves  to  a  discussion  of  the  means  by  which 
injury  from  local  frosts  may  be  averted,  in  case  they 
threaten  to  occur.  These  means  are  of  two  types, — those 
that  attempt  to  enable  the  plant  to  escape  injury  from  the 
frosts,  and  those  that  attempt  to  prevent  the  frost  from 
occurring.  Altogether  several  general  means  have  been 
proposed  for  protecting  plants  from  frost,  and  there  are 
also  combinations  of  the  methods.  The  methods  are 
mulching,  covering  the  plants,  whitewashing  the  plants, 
adding  the  vapor  of  water  to  the  atmosphere,  explosives, 
causing  currents  of  air,  making  artificial  clouds,  and  heat- 
ing the  air. 

The  temperatures  at  which  the  fruit-crop  may  be 
injured  by  frost  are  discussed  to  some  extent  in  Chapter 
VIII  (page  313);  but  O'Gara  summarizes  the  advice  as 
follows :  "The  temperatures  at  which  the  principal  orchard 
fruits  are  liable  to  be  injured  cannot  be  accurately  stated, 
since  weather  conditions  previous  to  a  freeze  determine 
to  a  very  great  extent  the  ability  of  plants  to  withstand 
low  temperatures.  Not  only  do  the  different  degrees  of 
cold  produce  different  effects  on  the  same  plant,  but  the 
same  plant  will  often  behave  differently  when  subjected 
to  the  same  degree  of  cold.  It  is  well  known  that  plants 
or  parts  of  plants  in  active  growth  are  more  easily  killed 
by  low  temperatures  than  the  same  plants  or  parts  of 
plants  when  dormant.  Actively  growing  plants  contain 
large  quantities  of  water;  that  is  to  say,  the  protoplasm 
or  cell-sap  is  watery,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  larger  the  pro- 
portion of  water  contained  within  the  plants  the  more 


252  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

likely  they  are  to  be  injured  by  low  temperatures.  While 
tables  giving  injurious  temperatures  to  fruit  when  in 
bud,  blossom  and  so  on,  have  been  prepared,  it  is  safe  to 
say  that  these  temperatures  are  not  entirely  reliable. 
This  is  because  conditions  are  never  the  same  in  any  frost 
period.  It  may  be  stated  that  in  the  practice  of  orchard- 
heating  the  safest  plan  is  to  keep  the  temperature  just 
above  the  freezing-point,  no  matter  what  the  variety  of 
fruit.  No  doubt,  this  will  often  be  2°  to  3°,  or  even  more, 
higher  than  necessary,  but  the  practice  is  on  the  safe  side. 
In  orchard-heating  practice,  the  temperature  should 
never  be  allowed  to  go  much  below  the  danger  point,  as  it 
is  usually  difficult  to  bring  it  back  without  some  chance 
of  injury  to  the  fruit." 

How  to  predict  frost. 

There  is  no  certain  way  of  foretelling  frost.  Careful 
observation  of  conditions  in  the  locality,  long  experience, 
and  the  use  of  the  forecasts  of  the  Weather  Bureau  are 
the  most  reliable  means.  Formerly  the  evening  dew- 
point  was  considered  a  reliable  guide  to  the  minimum 
temperature  of  the  ensuing  night.  Hence,  if  the  dew- 
point  say  at  4  P.M.,  as  determined  by  the  wet-and-dry- 
bulb  thermometer,  or  psychrometer  (Fig.  93),  should  lie 
below  the  freezing-point,  32°  F.,  frost  was  considered 
likely  to  occur.  This  method  of  forecasting  frost  seems 
to  hold  good  for  certain  localities  in  the  western  states, 
but  has  been  shown  by  Cox  and  others  to  be  wholly  unre- 
liable in  the  more  humid  eastern  states.  W.  M.  Wilson 
concludes  (Cornell  Bull.  No.  316)  as  follows,  after  a 
study  of  the  subject:  "For  the  farmer  who  is  prepared 
to  make  practical  use  of  a  frost-warning,  the  forecasts 
issued  by  the  Weather  Bureau  should  receive  first  con- 


Predicting  Frost 


253 


sideration,  because  they  may  be  obtained  early  in  the 
day,  before  it  is  possible  to  secure-  any  reliable  indica- 
tions from  local  observations  as  to  the  probability '  of 
frost.  But  when  the  warnings  issued  by  the  Weather 
Bureau  cannot  be  obtained,  and  the  farmer  must  rely  on 
himself,  there  are  no  instrumental 
readings  that  will  take  the  place  of 
a  careful  observation  of  the  condi- 
tion of  the  sky,  the  direction  and 
force  of  the  wind,  and  the  trend  of 
the  temperature." 

"In  the  day,  plants  usually 
receive  more  heat  from  the  sun  than 
they  give  off  (radiate),  and  conse- 
quently become  warmer;  but  at 
night  the  process  is  reversed,  and 
they  radiate  more  heat  than  they 
receive  and  thus  grow  colder.  When 
the  surface  of  a  plant  has  lost 
(radiated)  sufficient  heat  to  cause 
its  temperature  to  fall  to  32°  or 
below,  frost  forms.  Any  condition 
that  causes  increased  radiation  will 
increase  the  liability  of  frost,  and 
conversely,  whatever  checks  radia- 
tion or  supplies  additional  heat  to 
the  air  will  tend  to  ward  off  frost."  Favorable  con- 
ditions for  frost  are  a  clear  night,  a  quiet  or  still  night, 
a  moderately  dry  atmosphere.  The  surface  air  is  likely  to 
be  colder  than  that  above,  so  that  a  wind  may  warm  the 
surface  air  by  mixing  it  with  the  warmer  strata. 

Wilson  makes  the  following  observations  on  weather 
conditions  as  indicating  frost : 


FIG.  93.  One  form  of 
a  wet-and-dry  bulb  hy- 
grometer. 


254  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

"Preceding  weather. — The  character  of  the  preceding  weather  is 
important  because  damaging  frosts  often  follow  an  abnormally 
warm  period.  The  weather  moves  over  the  country  from  west  to 
east  in  somewhat  irregular,  but  nevertheless  well-defined  waves. 
Hence,  there  is  a  strong  tendency  for  extremes  to  follow  each  other, 
and  such  extremes  are  often  disastrous  in  their  effects.  A  light 
frost,  particularly  in  spring,  following  an  unusually  warm  period 
often  will  cause  more  damage  than  a  severer  frost  preceded  by 
cooler  weather,  because  the  warm  weather  forces  out  the  blossoms 
prematurely  and  renders  them  more  susceptible  to  injury.  While 
an  unusually  warm  period  does  not  mean  always  that  frost  will 
follow,  yet  the  fact  that  most  frosts  do  follow  such  periods  should 
be  regarded  as  sufficient  warning  that  frost  is  likely  to  occur. 

"State  of  the  sky. — Frost  is  not  likely  to  occur  when  the  sky  is 
overcast,  because  the  heat  given  off  by  the  earth  at  night  does  not 
penetrate  the  clouds  easily  and  is  practically  all  retained  in  the  air 
below  them,  which  therefore  remains  at  a  comparatively  high  tem- 
perature. Even  a  hazy  condition  of  the  sky,  or  the  thinnest  cirrus 
clouds,  have  an  appreciable  effect  in  retarding  the  fall  of  tem- 
perature at  the  surface.  But  on  clear  nights  the  heat  escaping  from 
the  earth  passes  away  quickly,  almost  without  hindrance,  far  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  atmosphere.  Hence,  the  fall  of  temperature  at 
the  surface  is  rapid  and,  unless  the  earth  has  a  vast  store  of  heat, 
frost  is  likely  to  occur. 

"Direction  and  force  of  the  wind. — The  direction  of  the  wind  is 
a  reliable  indication  of  the  approach  of  colder  weather.  If,  after  a 
day  or  two  of  warm  southerly  winds  and  possibly  rain,  the  wind 
changes  to  the  southwest  or  west,  it  is  an  almost  unfailing  indication 
that  the  warm  spell  is  over,  and  it  is  well  to  watch  closely  the  con- 
ditions that  follow,  particularly  if  there  are  signs  of  clearing  weather. 
Occasionally,  a  frost  follows  when  the  wind  backs  from  east  or  north- 
east to  north  or  northwest.  In  either  case,  the  conditions  to  be 
looked  for  as  soon  as  the  wind  changes  are  falling  temperature, 
decreasing  wind,  and  a  clear  sky.  Frost  is  not  likely  to  occur  unless 
the  air  becomes  quiet  and  the  sky  clear,  for  wind  prevents  the 
accumulation  of  the  colder  air  at  the  surface. 

"Trend  of  the  temperature. — The  rate  of  fall  in  temperature 
during  the  late  afternoon  or  early  evening  is  a  good  indication  of 
the  lowest  temperature  that  will  be  reached  during  the  night.  For 
example,  a  temperature  of  40°  at  about  6  P.  M.,  with  a  clear  sky 


Predicting  Frost  255 

and  light  wind,  is  considered  critical;  particularly  is  this  the  case  if 
the  rate  of  fall  approximates  1°  for  each  two  hours,  which,  if  con- 
tinuous— as  would  be  likely  with  a  clear  sky  and  light  wind — would 
bring  the  temperature  close  to  the  freezing-point  by  early  morning. 
A  fall  in  temperature  of  2°  an  hour  would  indicate  frost,  even  with 
the  temperature  considerably  above  40°  in  the  late  afternoon. 

"Atmospheric  pressure. — The  rate  of  change  in  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere,  as  indicated  by  the  barometer,  is  of  some  assistance 
in  forecasting  frost.  The  actual  stage  of  the  pressure,  whether  above 
or  below  normal,  is  not  important,  except  that  a  warm  period  with 
unusually  low  pressure  is  likely  to  be  followed  by  the  opposite 
extreme.  The  important  factor  is  the  rate  of  change.  If  the  pressure 
is  increasing  rapidly,  as  indicated  by  a  rapid  rise  in  the  barometer, 
it  is  a  good  indication  that  the  cold  period  or  cold  wave  is  approach- 
ing rapidly.  The  change  in  pressure  usually  precedes  by  a  short 
interval  the  change  in  direction  of  the  wind,  because  the  wind 
depends  on  the  pressure;  but  one  will  have  to  watch  the  barometer 
very  closely  to  gain  much  advantage  over  the  indications  afforded 
by  the  direction  and  force  of  the  wind." 

Mulching  to  enable  plants  to  escape  frost. 

It  is  a  general  opinion  that  a  mulch  or  heavy  cover 
placed  about  plants  on  the  earth  when  it  is  frozen,  will 
retard  flowering  and  the  maturing  of  fruit;  yet  the  practice 
appears  to  be  often  unsatisfactory,  and  there  are  reasons 
for  supposing  that  the  philosophy  of  the  subject  is  not 
commonly  understood.  The  subject  is  one  of  increasing 
importance,  for  it  is  essential  that  every  means  be  used  to 
escape  late  spring  frosts.  Efforts  must  also  be  made  to 
reach  the  market  when  there  is  least  competition  from 
other  sources,  and,  in  the  North,  at  least,  this  competition 
comes  chiefly  from  early  products  produced  in  states  to 
the  southward. 

If  the  plants  are  such  that  they  can  be  entirely  covered 
(as  the  strawberry),  mulching  will  retard  them;  but  the 
mulching  of  the  earth  does  not  greatly  affect  the  blossom- 


256  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

ing  of  early-blooming  woody  plants  if  the  tops  are  left 
exposed.  Plants  store  up  starchy  matters  in  their  bulbs 
or  branches,  to  be  used  in  the  growth  of  the  adjacent  parts 
in  early  spring.  The  earliest  bloom  of  spring  is  supported 
by  this  store  of  nutriment,  rather  than  by  food  freshly 
appropriated  from  the  earth.  This  is  well  illustrated  by 
placing  well-matured  twigs  of  apple  or  willow  (or  other 
early-flowering  plants)  in  vases  of  water  in  winter,  when 
the  buds  will  burst  and  flowers  will  often  appear.  On  the 
15th  of  one  February,  a  branch  of  a  nectarine  tree  that 
stood  alongside  a  horticultural  laboratory  was  drawn  into 
the  office  through  a  window.  This  office  was  maintained 
at  the  temperature  of  a  living-room.  On  the  6th  of  April 
the  buds  began  to  swell,  and  the  young  leaves  had  reached 
a  length  of  %  mcn  a  week  later.  The  leaves  finally  attained 
their  full  size  on  this  branch  before  the  buds  on  the  remain- 
ing or  outdoor  part  of  the  plant  had  begun  to  swell.  This 
experiment  must  impress  upon  the  reader  the  fact  that 
much  of  the  bursting  vegetation  of  springtime  is  supported 
by  a  local  store  of  nutriment,  and  is  more  or  less  indepen- 
dent of  root-action.  If  the  ground  could  be  kept  frozen 
for  a  sufficiently  long  period  after  vegetation  begins,  the 
plant  would  consume  its  supply  of  stored  food,  and  might 
then  be  checked  from  inactivity  of  the  root,  but  this  would 
evidently  be  at  the  expense  of  injury  to  the  plant;  but, 
in  practice,  it  is  fortunately  impossible  to  hold  the  frost 
in  the  soil  so  long.  It  is  evident,  too,  that  the  covering 
of  strawberries  and  other  low  plants  for  the  purpose  of 
retarding  fruit  must  be  practised  with  caution,  for  a  mulch 
of  sufficient  depth  measurably  to  delay  vegetation  is 
likely  to  bleach  and  injure  the  young  growth,  and  to  lessen 
the  crop.  Yet  it  can  sometimes  be  used  to  good  effect, 
and  fruiting  can  be  delayed  a  week,  perhaps  even  more. 


Covering  for  Protection  257 

Some  skilful  strawberry-growers  are  able  to  delay  fruiting 
on  small  patches  as  much  as  two  weeks  by  means  of 
mulches.  While  mulching  the  ground  may  not  retard  the 
period  of  bloom,  and  thus  enable  the  plant  to  escape  frost, 
it  is  possible  that  it  may  be  useful  in  protection  from  frost, 
because  it  holds  moisture,  and,  therefore,  tends  to  raise 
the  dew-point. 

Covering  the  plants  to  protect  from  frost. 

Covering  for  protection  is  practicable  in  many  cases. 
The  discussion  of  the  mulching  of  strawberries  to  protect 
them  from  cold  and  from  frost,  as  already  described, 
really  belongs  here.  Plants  may  be  protected  from  both 
winter  cold  and  spring  frost  by  this  means. 

Many  low-growing  plants  may  be  covered  with  earth. 
It  is  a  practice  in  some  places  to  plow  a  furrow  or  two  over 
the  strawberry  rows  when  a  frost  is  anticipated;  fig  trees, 
and  other  low  or  flexible-stemmed  plants,  are  often  planted 
on  sloping  land,  so  that  they  may  be  bent  to  the  surface 
and  covered  when  occasion  requires.  In  parts  of  Russia, 
and  other  cold  countries,  the  trees  of  orchard  fruits  are 
often  pegged  down  in  a  similar  way. 

Grapes  are  regularly  removed  from  the  trellises  and 
laid  down  in  some  places.  The  vines  may  be  covered 
lightly  with  earth,  or  drawn  under  boards  nailed  together 
trough-shaped.  Sometimes  a  few  sods  are  placed  on  the 
vines  to  hold  them  in  place,  and  the  snow  fills  in  among 
them  and  affords  adequate  protection. 

Blackberries  and  raspberries  are  extensively  laid  down 
in  cold  climates,  and  it  may  be  well  to  relate  the  method 
here,  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  occupy  bleak  locations. 
Late  in  fall,  the  bushes  are  tipped  over  and  covered. 
Usually  three  men  are  employed  for  this  labor.  One  man 
Q 


258  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

goes  ahead  with  a  long-handled  round-pointed  shovel 
and  digs  the  earth  away  6  inches  deep  from  under  the 
roots.  The  second  man  has  a  six-tined  or  four-tined  fork 
which  he  thrusts  against  the  plant  a  foot  or  so  above  the 
ground,  and  by  pushing  on  the  fork  and  stamping  against 
the  roots  with  the  foot,  the  plant  is  laid  over  in  the  direc- 
tion from  which  the  earth  was  removed.  The  third  man 
now  covers  the  plant  with  the  earth  or  marsh  hay.  Earth 
is  mostly  used,  and  if  the  variety  is  tender  the  whole  bush 
is  covered  2  to  3  inches  deep.  Hardy  varieties  may  be 
held  down  by  throwing  a  few  shovelfuls  of  earth  on  the 
tops  of  the  canes,  thus  allowing  the  snow  to  fill  in  amongst 
the  tops.  If  the  grower  lives  in  a  locality  where  late  spring 
frosts  are  not  feared,  the  bushes  should  be  raised  early 
in  the  spring;  but  if  frosts  are  anticipated,  they  may  be 
left  under  cover  until  corn-planting  time.  If  the  buds 
become  large  and  are  bleached  while  under  cover,  they 
will  suffer  when  exposed  to  the  atmosphere;  and  one  must 
watch  the  bushes  in  spring,  and  raise  them  before  the 
growth  starts.  This  method  of  laying  down  blackberry 
plants  costs  less  than  $15  an  acre,  and  the  slight  breaking 
of  the  roots  is  no  disadvantage.  Some  growers  dig  the 
earth  away  on  both  sides  of  the  row,  and  still  others  bend 
over  the  canes  without  any  digging.  Whatever  method 
is  employed,  the  operator  must  be  careful  not  to  crack 
or  split  the  canes.  The  method  may  be  varied  with  dif- 
ferent varieties,  for  some  bear  stiffer  canes  than  others. 
The  laying  down  of  orchard  trees  is  little  practised 
in  this  country,  but  it.  must  come  to  be  better  understood 
as  the  country  develops  and  a  greater  interest  arises  in 
amateur  fruit-growing.  A  method  of  training  peach 
trees  for  laying  down  is  as  follows  (method  of  J.  T. 
Macomber) :  The  trunk  is  trained  in  a  horizontal  position, 


Covering  and  Whitewashing  259 

and  it  should  be  10  feet  or  more  long  to  allow  of  its  being 
twisted.  The  top  is  trained  fan-shaped  and  is  supported 
by  a  stake,  and  the  bend  of  the  trunk  rests  upon  a  block 
of  wood.  The  long,  horizontal  trunk  remains  compara- 
tively small  and  pliable  year  after  year.  It  should  be 
covered  with  an  inverted  board  trough  at  all  seasons,  to 
prevent  injury  from  the  sun.  The  flat  top  is  laid  upon  the 
ground  each  winter,  by  twisting  the  trunk,  and  is  covered 
with  boards;  it  is  not  lifted  until  all  danger  of  late  spring 
frosts  is  past.  A  little  ingenuity  applied  to  the  pruning  and 
training  of  fruit-trees  will  make  it  possible  to  lay  them 
down,  by  one  method  or  another,  with  every  hope  of  success. 

Some  fruits  may  be  advantageously  protected  by 
covering  them  with  temporary  (or  even  permanent) 
screens.  This  is  extensively  done  in  pineapple-culture, 
in  which  the  better  varieties  are  grown  under  lath  or  slat 
sheds,  for  the  purpose  of  protection  from  frost,  sun  and 
drought;  and  it  is  now  a  practice  with  citrous  fruits  in 
parts  of  Florida.  Small  or  amateur  plantations  of  straw- 
berries, or  even  of  bush-fruits,  may  be  easily  covered  with 
lath  screens  when  frost  is  feared. 

In  the  case  of  the  cranberry,  the  plant  may  be  covered 
with  water,  as  explained  on  the  next  page. 

Whitewashing  as  a  protection. 

The  experiments  of  Whitten  have  shown  that  the 
whitewashing  of  trees  may  retard  the  period  of  bloom  in 
early-flowering  fruits,  and  sometimes  sufficiently  to  allow 
them  to  escape  spring  frosts.  The  reason  of  this  is  that 
the  white  covering  reduces  the  absorption  of  heat  rays, 
since  these  rays  are  absorbed  mostly  by  surfaces  having 
dark  colors;  the  tree  is  therefore  kept  cooler.  Thorough 
spraying  with  lime-sulfur  has  a  similar  effect. 


260  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

Making  currents  of  air. 

Since  frosts  occur  on  still  nights,  it  is  sometimes  pos- 
sible to  prevent  them  by  keeping  the  air  in  motion,  thereby 
mixing  the  air  and  preventing  any  part  of  it  from  lying 
on  the  plant  until  it  shall  have  become  frost-cold  by  loss 
of  radiated  heat.  In  small  areas,  as  in  choice  gardens,  it 
is  often  feasible  to  undertake  such  means.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  windmills  be  set  in  motion  by  electric  or 
other  power,  or  that  mechanical  fans  be  installed.  These 
methods  appear  not  to  have  been  applied  commercially. 

Adding  vapor  of  water  to  the  air;  flooding. 

An  abundance  of  watery  vapor  in  the  air  tends  to 
check  the  radiation  of  the  earth's  heat,  and  the  addition 
of  water-vapor  has  an  influence  in  raising  the  dew-point. 

The  means  of  adding  vapor  to  the  atmosphere  are 
several:  Spraying,  flooding  and  irrigating,  mulching  and 
tilling.  The  machinery  used  in  spraying  for  insects  and 
fungi  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  Elaborate  stand- 
pipe  devices,  connecting  with  underground  pipes,  have 
been  used  to  facilitate  the  spraying  of  orchards.  How 
much  relief  may  be  found  from  these  practices  is  yet 
doubtful.  The  soaking  of  plantations  to  protect  from 
frost  is  practicable  in  places  where  vineyards  are  arranged 
to  be  flooded  for  the  destruction  of  phylloxera.  Irrigating 
systems  may  also  be  used  to  add  moisture  to  the  soil,  and 
therefore  to  the  air,  when  frost  is  anticipated. 

"Cranberry  bogs,  being  always  lower  than  the  surround- 
ing land,  are  peculiarly  liable  to  damage  by  frost,  serious 
loss  frequently  occurring  when  an  ordinary  farmer  would 
not  dream  of  danger,  and  a  good  supply  of  water  is  the 
only  preventive  that  has  been  found  efficient.  The  time 
of  starting  growth  in  the  spring  may  be  controlled  by  the 


Coverings  and  Explosives  261 

time  the  water  is  drained  off  and  the  earlier  spring  frosts 
may  so  be  avoided  while  an  ample  supply  of  water  permits 
reflooding  when  a  later  severe  frost  threatens.  Reflooding 
about  the  first  of  June,  provided  the  water  has  not  been 
withdrawn  earlier  than  May  5  to  10,  will  also  furnish  pro- 
tection from  a  number  of  damaging  insects  and  will  not 
injure  the  crop,  provided  care  is  taken  that  the  water  does 
not  stand  on  any  portion  of  the  bog  more  than  forty-eight 
hours.  If  a  bog  should  become  seriously  infested  with 
insects  later  in  the  season,  it  is  occasionally  profitable  to 
sacrifice  what  remains  of  the  year's  crop  and  clear  the  bog 
of  insects  by  flooding.  This  sometimes  results  in  a  greatly 
increased  yield  the  following  year.  Damage  from  a  light 
frost  in  the  fall,  before  the  berries  are  picked,  may  be  pre- 
vented by  raising  the  water  in  the  ditches  and  about  the 
roots  of  the  vines.  Protection  from  a  heavy  frost  requires 
covering  the  plants  with  water,  but  this  will  cause  imma- 
ture berries  to  rot  and  should  be  done  with  great  caution 
or  the  damage  from  water  may  be  greater  than  it  would 
have  been  from  frost." — Elizabeth  C.  White,  Standard 
Cyclopedia  of  Horticulture. 

Explosives  for  frost  and  hail. 

Explosives  were  first  used  in  the  vineyard  districts  of 
Austria,  France  and  Italy,  where  hailstorms  and  frost 
were  prevalent  and  were  destructive  to  the  grape-crop. 
Many  years  ago,  Albert  Stiger,  burgomaster,  Windisch- 
Briestrits  (Lower  Steirmark,  Austria),  we  are  informed, 
owned  extensive  vineyards  on  the  lower  slopes  of  the 
Bacher  Mountains,  a  locality  persistently  visited  by  des- 
tructive hailstorms.  He  decided  to  drive  the  clouds  away 
by  the  use  of  explosives  and  he  established  six  stations 
on  six  of  the  surrounding  mountains,  a  locality  2  miles  in 
extent.  The  stations,  built  of  wood,  sheltered  ten  heavy 


262 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


mortars  each,  and  near  each  station  was  a  cabin  in  which 
powder  was  stored.  A  corps  of  volunteers  consisting  of 
neighbors  and  owners  of  small  vineyards  was  trained  to 
proceed  to  the  stations  and  handle  the  mortars  whenever 
there  was  the  slightest  indication  of  a  storm.  Each  mortar 

i i     was      loaded 

with  about  43/£ 
ounces  of  pow- 
der; the  firing 
was  simulta- 
neous and  con- 
tinuous until 
the  clouds  were 
either  scattered 
or  blown  away. 
This  also  had  a 
tendency  to 
break  up  the 
stratum  of  cold 
air  and  prevent 

FIG.  94.    Hail-gun,  installed  in  a  vineyard.   The  shed          its     Settling     in 
is  only  a  storehouse.  .  i      i  i 

thelowgrounds. 

These  experiments  were  practised  for  some  time,  and 
are  said  to  have  been  successful.  (G.  B.  Brackett,  Year- 
book, U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.,  1909.) 

This  principle  of  applying  explosives  in  the  upper  air 
has  received  considerable  attention  for  the  prevention  of 
hail  from  fruit-growers  abroad  and  it  has  been  introduced 
in  the  United  States,  but  meteorologists  do  not  look  on  it 
with  favor  or  as  being  likely  to  produce  the  desired  results. 
Fig.  94  is  an  illustration  of  one  of  several  hail-guns  now 
employed  in  New  York.  When  hail  is  threatened  in  the 
vineyard,  these  guns  are  fired  repeatedly,  heavy  charges 


Frost-protection  by  Means  of  Smudges  263 

of  gunpowder  being  used.  The  guns  are  made  of  heavy 
sheet  metal,  and  are  fired  from  beneath.  The  vineyardists 
think  that  the  results  have  been  satisfactory.  The  sub- 
ject needs  investigation. 

The  making  of  smudges. 

Frosts  occur  on  clear  nights.  This  is  because  the  earth's 
heat  radiates  quickly  into  space.  When  clouds  or  fogs  are 
present,  this  radiation  is  checked.  It  is  possible,  in  many 
cases,  to  supply  a  blanket  of  smoke  to  check  radiation; 
and  if  this  cover  also  contains  much  vapor  of  water,  its 
efficiency  will  thereby  be  greatly  increased. 

The  use  of  smoke  or  smudges  to  protect  plants  from 
frost  is  an  old  practice.  It  is  necessary,  to  secure  the  great- 
est protection,  that  the  smudge  be  dense  and  uniform,  and 
especially  that  it  be  maintained  until  all  danger  of  frost 
is  past.  The  best  results  are  usually  secured  on  level 
lands,  where  the  smoke  will  not  drain  away,  and  where 
there  are  no  higher  lands  from  which  the  cold  air  may 
settle. 

The  best  smudges  are  usually  made  by  burning  some 
tar-like  substance.  In  any  case,  a  smouldering  fire  is  much 
better  than  a  blaze.  The  fire  should  burn  slowly,  and 
attendants  should  keep  the  smudge  going  all  night.  Wet 
leaves,  manure,  sawdust,  brush,  grass,  crude-oil  and  a 
variety  of  materials  are  in  use  for  smudges.  Some  grape- 
growers  cut  the  trimmings  into  short  lengths  and  pile 
them  in  vineyards,  expecting  to  use  them  if  frost  should 
threaten.  If  frost  does  not  occur,  the  piles  are  burned 
before  tillage  is  begun.  Crude  petroleum  stored  in  barrel- 
like  tanks  or  receptacles  is  sometimes  conducted  through 
the  plantation  in  pipes,  and  kettles  are  filled  (and  ignited) 
at  intervals.  A  mixture  of  one  part  gas-tar  and  two 


264 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


parts  sawdust  is  said  to  make  an  excellent  material  for 
a  smudge. 

In  Europe,  particularly  in  the  vineyard  regions,  smudg- 
ing is  an  accepted  practice,  and  there  are  patented  com- 
positions in  the  way  of  fuels.  One  of  the  systems  is  that 
of  M.  Lestout,  of  Bordeaux:  It  consists  of  little  cubical 
boxes,  20  centimeters  (a  little  less  than  8  inches)  square, 


FIG.  95.  Smudging  a  vineyard  in  France. 

weighing  seven  kilos  (fifteen  pounds  four  ounces),  and  cost- 
ing about  75  centimes  (15  cents)  apiece.  These  are  placed 
around  the  field  to  be  protected  at  a  distance  of  10  meters 
(32  feet  10  inches)  apart,  and  are  easily  ignited  from  a 
torch.  The  fire  emits  a  black  smoke,  which  can  be  ren- 
dered more  dense  by  pouring  water  upon  the  smudges. 
After  a  while,  the  columns  of  smoke  fuse  into  a  thick 
cloud,  which  settles  upon  the  field,  and  elevates  the  tem- 
perature by  2°  or  3°.  The  fires  can  be  instantly  put  out 
by  an  extinguisher.  M.  Lestout  declared  some  years  ago 
that  300  smudges,  costing  225  francs  ($45),  will  protect  a 
vineyard  3,000  meters  square — i.  e.,  one  containing  900 


Orchard  Heating  265 

hectares  (about  2,200  acres) — namely,  at  a  cost  of  25  cen- 
times (5  cents)  for  each  2J^  acres.  The  illustration 
(Fig.  95)  shows  the  Lestout  method  in  operation.  In 
North  America,  the  direct  heating  of  plantations  is  now 
gaining  the  ascendancy  over  smudging. 

One  of  the  advantages  of  a  smudge  is  the  utilization 
of  it  very  early  in  the  morning  to  protect  the  plantation 
from  the  sun  when  the  night  has  been  very  cold  and  there 
is  reason  to  think  that  the  buds  have  been  injured.  All 
frosted  plants  should  be  protected  from  the  sun  on  the 
chance  that  they  may  recover. 

Heating  the  plantation. 

It  is  possible  and  in  many  cases  practicable  to  heat 
the  fruit-plantation  by  means  of  fires,  even  raising  the 
temperature  as  much  as  10°.  Preparation  is  made  in 
advance,  and  when  the  indications  point  to  frost,  the 
fires  are  lighted.  The  smoke  arising  from  the  fires  may 
combine  the  effects  of  a  smudge  with  the  heating  of  the 
air,  although  little  dependence  is  commonly  placed  on 
the  smoke.  In  very  recent  years,  the  heating  of  plan- 
tations has  assumed  commercial  importance,  particularly 
in  Colorado  and  on  the  Pacific  slope,  and  many  heating 
devices  are  now  on  the  market. 

Any  combustible  material  may  be  used,  as  wood,  straw, 
leaves,  shavings,  manure,  prunings  from  the  plantation, 
coal  and  oil.  The  manure  and  straw  are  more  useful  for 
smudging,  but  the  use  of  wood — as  cordwood,  old  rails, 
stumps,  and  general  refuse — is  wholly  practicable;  the 
material  to  use  is  largely  a  matter  of  cost.  The  patented 
oil-burners  are  compact  and  effective;  and  it  is  now  gener- 
ally considered  that  crude-oil  or  distillate  is  the  best  and 
most  economical  material  to  use. 


266  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

Some  of  the  methods  in  orchard-heating  are  here 
quoted  and  adapted  from  O'Gara,  who  has  had  much 
experience  in  Oregon  and  has  written  effectively  on  the 
subject. 

The  number  of  heaps  or  piles  of  home  material  which  should  be 
distributed  in  the  orchard  will  vary  somewhat,  depending  upon  the 
kind  of  material  used,  about  forty  to  fifty  piles  to  the  acre  being 
usually  sufficient.  In  most  cases  a  heap  or  pile  was  placed  between 
every  four  trees — that  is  to  say,  a  pile  every  other  tree  row  in  each 
direction  in  the  orchard,  as  Fig.  96,  which  illustrates  the  preparation 
in  an  apple  orchard.  Usually  it  will  be  found  that  only  half  of  these 
heaps  will  have  to  be  lighted  at  one  time,  which  of  course  allows  a 
large  amount  of  reserve  material  that  may  be  used  in  case  it  is 
impossible  to  keep  the  temperature  up  with  only  half  the  fires 
lighted.  It  is  also  well  to  place  heaps  of  fuel  on  the  outer  edges  or 
borders  of  the  orchard,  since  it  is  often  found  that  the  outside  trees 
may  suffer  where  a  slight  breeze  tends  to  blow  the  heat  away. 
These  piles  should  be  distributed  outside  the  last  row  of  the  orchard, 
and  in  case  the  temperature  can  not  be  kept  up  they  should  be 
lighted. 

In  case  the  temperature  can  not  be  kept  up  to  28°  F.,  a  certain 
quantity  of  straw  or  stable  manure,  which  will  produce  a  dense 
smudge,  should  be  placed  upon  these  heaps  before  the  sun  rises. 
These  smudges  should  be  started  on  the  side  or  sides  from  which 
the  wind  is  blowing,  and  the  material  should  be  wet,  so  as  to  make 
it  burn  without  any  flame. 

Experience  has  shown  that  the  fires  should  not  be  large,  since 
large  fires  tend  to  produce  convective  currents  that  are  apt  to  bring 
in  cold  air;  hence,  the  quantity  of  material  for  each  heap  need  not 
be  very  great.  Large  fires  also  might  scorch  the  blossoms..  From 
four  to  five  pieces  of  cordwood,  or  its  equivalent  hi  any  other  kind 
of  wood  or  old  rails,  are  sufficient  for  a  single  fire;  very  often  when 
the  low  temperature  is  of  short  duration  all  of  this  material  will  not 
be  consumed  in  a  single  firing.  In  case  stable  manure  or  rubbish  was 
used,  a  larger  number  of  heaps  were  placed,  and  the  quantity  of 
material  to  each  heap  averaged  about  a  bushel  or  a  bushel  and  a 
half. 


Orchard  Heating  267 

The  cost  of  the  material  for  firing  varied  greatly,  depending  upon 
how  it  was  obtained.  In  some  cases,  where  good  cordwood  was  used, 
the  cost  of  one  firing  was  given  as  $2  an  acre.  However,  it  may  be 
stated  that  generally  the  cost  to  the  acre  for  one  night  was  between 
$2  and  $2.50.  In  some  cases  the  cost  was  estimated  as  high  as  $4, 
but  it  is  quite  possible  that  more  material  than  was  necessary  was 
burned,  and  that  a  higher  price  than  usual  was  paid  for  it.  When 
stable  manure  and  rubbish  alone  were  used,  the  cost  for  firing  an 
acre  was  from  4  to  10  cents.  This  was  because  the  material  was  on 
hand,  and  the  only  element  of  expense  was  for  distributing  it. 

Oil-heating,  however,  is  the  most  dependable  means. 
"No  matter  how  remote  a  fruit-district  may  be  from  an 
oil-field,"  writes  O'Gara,  "there  is  no  question  but  that 
oil  is  the  best  fuel  to  be  used,  especially  in  large  commercial 
orchards  when  the  labor  problem  is  one  of  more  than  ordi- 
nary importance.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  difference  in  the 
oils  as  secured  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  For  the 
most  part,  eastern  crude-oils  have  a  paraffine  base,  while 
those  on  the  Pacific  slope  have  an  asphaltum  base.  The 
crude-oil,  or  petroleum,  as  it  comes  from  the  wells  is  very 
rich  in  gases  and  the  lighter  oils,  such  as  benzene,  gasolene, 
kerosene  and  others,  and  therefore,  is  not  used  as  such 
for  orchard-heating.  The  gases  and  lighter  oils  are  all 
removed  by  fractional  distillation,  leaving  behind  the 
heavier  oils  and  the  asphaltum  or  paraffine  base,  as  the 
case  may  be.  The  fuel-oils  on  the  market  are,  therefore, 
residuals,  and  as  such  are  used  for  orchard-heating.  A 
residual  oil  with  a  paraffine  base  will  burn  in  the  common 
smudge-pot  without  leaving  behind  anything  but  a  little 
soot;  but  the  oils  with  an  asphaltum  base  do  not.  For 
this  reason  it  is  found  necessary  to  remove  the  asphaltum 
base  in  so  far  as  is  practicable.  Asphaltum  does  not 
burn  readily  in  a  simple  smudge-pot,  and  therefore, 
remains  behind  after  the  lighter  oil  has  burned.  Upon 


268  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

cooling,  it  becomes  very  hard,  and  reduces  the  capacity  of 
the  pot  for  future  fillings.  The  best  oil  for  orchard-heat- 
ing purposes  is  one  of  approximately  20°  Baume  test,  con- 
sidering the  matter  of  cost  as  an  item.  A  lighter  oil  up 
to  32°  Baume  may  be  used,  but  being  lighter,  it  will  burn 
more  rapidly  and  reduce  the  effective  burning  time  of  the 
orchard-heater." 

The  equipment  for  orchard-heating  comprises  appara- 
tus for  determining  weather  conditions  as  well  as  devices 
for  making  and  regulating  the  fires.  For  a  large  plantation 
in  which  heating  is  likely  to  be  practised,  there  should  be 
thermometers  and  frost-alarm  thermometers  (psychrom- 
eters),  the  heaters  themselves,  devices  for  igniting  the 
heaters,  reservoirs  for  storing  the  oil  (if  oil  is  used),  and 
a  wagon-tank  for  distributing  the  oil. 

Many  types  of  oil-heaters  are  now  available,  some  of 
them  with  reservoirs  for  holding  an  extra  quantity  of  oil. 
O'Gara  reports,  however,  that  extensive  experiments 
have  shown  "that  the  plain  sheet-iron  pot,  holding  approx- 
imately five  quarts  of  fuel-oil  is  just  as  effective  as  the  more 
complicated  and  expensive  types.  This  pot  is  inexpensive, 
and,  when  made  of  No.  29  or  26  sheet-iron,  will  cost  from 
5  to  8  cents.  In  using  a  heater  of  such  small  size,  the 
number  to  the  acre  should  not  be  less  than  100,  and 
preferably  more  in  districts  in  which  periods  of  low  tem- 
perature continue  more  than  four  or  five  hours.  Owing  to 
the  cheapness  of  such  pots,  a  very  large  number  may  be 
used  in  preference  to  using  a  few  expensive  heaters  of 
the  reservoir  type.  Many  small  fires  give  better  results 
than  a  few  large  ones,  as  the  heat  is  better  distributed 
and  convective  air-currents  are  not  produced.  It  must  be 
understood  that  any  orchard-heating  device  which  is  in 
any  way  complicated  by  dampers,  cocks,  valves  and  the 


Orchard-Heating  269 

like,  must  be  avoided.  At  best,  an  orchard-heater  is 
roughly  handled  and  the  more  expensive  and  complicated 
types  would  find  a  very  short  existence  in  actual  orchard- 
heating  practice.  Furthermore,  the  matter  of  storage 
must  be  considered.  The  simple  pot  which  will  nest  easily 
and  occupy  very  little  space  will  be  more  desirable.  There 
is  no  objection  to  the  high-priced  reservoir  heater  provid- 
ing it  is  not  complicated;  but  the  same  results  may  be 
secured  by  the  more  simple  lard-pail  type,  holding  about 
five  quarts,  and  having  a  burning  time  of  four  and  five 
hours,  depending  upon  the  quality  of  fuel-oil  used. 

"The  cost  of  orchard-heating  is  such  a  variable  quan- 
tity that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  make  a  general  estimate 
which  will  be  of  any  value.  Equipment,  cost  of  fuel, 
length  and  number  of  firing  periods,  and  so  on,  will  vary 
in  different  localities  and  seasons.  Orchard-heaters  will 
cost  all  the  way  from  6  cents  to  50  cents  each,  and  from 
fifty  to  one  hundred  heaters,  depending  upon  conditions, 
will  have  to  be  used  to  the  acre.  The  quantity  of  oil  will 
vary  with  the  season,  and  the  cost  will  be  all  the  way  from 
1  to  5  or  6  cents  a  gallon.  Usually,  no  less  than  300  gallons 
an  acre  should  be  provided.  At  least  one  wagon-tank  will 
have  to  be  provided  for  each  10  acres  at  a  cost  of  $25. 
Lighters  and  torches  will  cost  from  $1  to  $2  an  acre; 
thermometers  75  cents  to  $1  an  acre.  The  cost  of  a  storage- 
tank  charged  to  each  acre  will  depend  upon  its  size,  but 
will  not  be  far  from  $10  an  acre  for  large  tracts.  It  is 
possible  to  get  at  the  actual  cost  of  fuel-oil  to  the  acre  in 
the  following  way:  The  quantity  of  fuel-oil  necessary  to 
raise  the  temperature  5°  F.  above  the  surrounding  air  in 
an  orchard  in  full  bearing,  with  wide-spreading  trees,  will 
be  approximately  twelve  and  one-half  gallons  an  hour  to 
the  acre.  This  will  be  true  if  the  air  remains  calm  or  does 


270  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

not  move  more  than  1  or  2  miles  an  hour.  In  young 
orchards,  with  the  fruiting  area  low,  practically  double 
the  quantity  of  fuel-oil  as  given  will  be  necessary.  The 
simple  lard-pail  type  of  heater,  or,  for  that  matter,  any 


•  g     .«*;•.    --  -*N?   %i  -~ 
'^%-;*A--4^^*'^-v?     -rf-^— ~.>  ^    z    *' 

FIG.  96.  The  using  of  wood  for  heating  an  orchard, — fifty  fires  to  the  acre. 

type  of  orchard-heater  providing  a  burning  area  of  about 
44  square  inches,  will  burn  about  one  quart  of  fuel-oil  an 
hour.  Fifty-one  gallon  heaters  will  burn  approximately 
twelve  and  one-half  gallons  of  fuel-oil  an  hour  and  if  this 
oil  costs  4  cents  a  gallon,  the  cost  an  acre-hour  will  be 
about  50  cents  when  all  the  pots  are  burning.  In  other 
words,  under  the  above  conditions,  it  will  cost  approxi- 
mately 1  cent  an  hour  for  each  heater  used,  providing  this 
heater  does  not  have  a  burning  surface  greater  than  44 
square  inches.  It  will  require  less  fuel  to  heat  an  orchard 
in  the  square  form  than  one  of  any  other  shape.  The 


Orchard-Heating 


271 


more  the  orchard -heaters  are  massed  in  the  form  of  a 
square,  the  better  the  results.  In  fact,  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  protect  an  orchard  of  only  a  few  rows  because 
there  is  no  massing  of  the  heat  generated  on  account  of 
the  lack  of  braking  effect  on  air-movement."  Figs.  96,  97, 
98  (from  Standard  Cyclo.  Hort.)  show  some  of  the  methods 
in  orchard-heating. 

Experiments  in  Indiana  (Bull.  No.  154)  lead  Wood- 
berry  and  Wellington  to  conclude  that  "Whether  or  not 
orchard-heating  pays  depends  on  whether  spring  frost- 
injury  is  the  limiting  factor  in  the  production  of  the  crop. 
There  are  probably  some  orchards  on  sites  of  such  a 
nature,  and  cared  for  so  well  in  every  other  respect,  that 
spring  frost-injury  is  the  limiting  factor  in  crop-produc- 
tion. In  these  orchards,  heating  would  be  profitable. 


FIG.  97.    Protecting  the  windward  side  of  an  orchard  by  using  a  double  row  of 

oil-heaters. 


272 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


In  the  vast  majority  of  Indiana  orchards,  spraying,  prun- 
ing and  good  management  must  become  the  rule  instead 
of  the  exception  before  heating  will  pay.  Considering  the 
necessity  of  a  reserve  of  extra  heaters  for  emergency, 
supply  of  fuel  for  several  successive  nights,  labor  of  dis- 
tributing and  filling  heaters,  and  labor-cost  of  firing,  the 
initial  investment  to  prepare  for  protecting  a  10-acre 
orchard  from  frost-injury  probably  is  not  far  from  $500." 


FIG.  98.  Smudge  in  an  Oregon  orchard. 

They  found  oil-heaters  to  give  better  results  than  coal- 
heaters,  considering  the  price  and  the  quick  response  of 
the  oil-burners.  A  maximum  rise  of  temperature  of  10.2° 
was  secured  with  126  heaters  to  the  acre.  When  using 
80  to  100  oil-heaters  to  the  acre,  the  usual  temperature 
rise  was  5°  to  7°. 

In  Iowa,  Greene  found  heating  of  orchards  to  be 
practicable;  the  estimated  cost  for  a  10-acre  orchard,  with 
65  oil-heaters  to  the  acre,  was  about  $375  to  $675  (Iowa 
Bull.  No.  129).  Church  and  Fergusson  report  gratifying 


Tying  up  Young  Trees  273 

results  in  Nevada  (Bull.  No.  79),  with  a  good  profit- 
balance. 

All  these  results,  together  with  others  not  here  men- 
tioned, indicate  that  the  possibility  of  heating  orchards  to 
protect  from  spring  frosts  is  now  well  beyond  the  experi- 
mental stage;  whether  it  will  become  a  generally  profitable 
practice  with  deciduous  fruits,  however,  remains  yet  to 
be  determined. 

SPECIAL  CARE  OF  THE  PLANTS 

Many  special  practices,  some  of  them  local,  are  very 
important  to  the  fruit-grower,  and  raise  many  questions. 
Some  of  these  may  now  be  briefly  considered,  along  with 
other  problems  on  which  information  may  be  desired. 

Staking  young  trees. 

If  fruit-trees  are  stocky  and  well  planted,  and  if  the 
land  is  deep  and  in  good  condition,  it  will  rarely  be  neces- 
sary to  stake  them.  The  staking  of  an  orchard  is  usually 
an  indication  of  poor  trees  or  poor  management  at  some 
point.  It  occasionally  happens,  however,  that  trees  must 
be  staked  to  enable  them  to  overcome  some  accident  or 
injury,  as  breaking  by  heavy  winds  or  ice.  When  it 
is  necessary  to  stake  trees,  it  is  ordinarily  best  to 
drive  a  stout  stake  on  two  sides  and  then  to  bind  the  tree 
firmly  to  each  of  these  stakes,  in  order  to  keep  it  from 
whipping.  The  best  bandage  is  of  burlaps  or  other  strong 
soft  cloth,  cut  in  strips  2  or  3  inches  wide  and  firmly  tied 
about  the  tree.  Just  as  soon  as  the  tree  has  recovered 
from  its  injury  or  weakness,  the  support  should  be  re- 
moved. Trees  that  have  blown  over,  but  have  not  been 
broken  completely  off,  may  be  severely  headed-in  and 
tied  up  in  this  way,  often  with  the  very  best  results.  The 
B 


274  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

wounded  and  broken  surfaces  should  be  thoroughly  covered 
with  some  antiseptic  wash  or  paint,  or  with  grafting-wax. 

Watering. 

If  the  young  trees  or  other  plants  are  set  in  autumn  or 
early  in  the  spring  and  in  well-prepared  ground,  there 
should  be  very  little  loss  from  lack  of  moisture  to  start 
them  off  well.  In  late  spring  planting,  however,  and  if  the 
trees  are  either  shrivelled  or  have  begun  to  start,  the  dry 
hot  weather  may  catch  them  before  they  are  well  estab- 
lished. In  exceptionally  dry  springs,  many  trees  may  be 
lost  even  with  the  best  of  care  at  the  beginning.  In  all 
such  cases,  one  good  watering  at  the  critical  time  may  save 
the  bushes  or  trees.  If  some  of  them  are  very  slow  to 
start,  they  should  receive  separate  attention.  See  whether 
the  earth  has  been  properly  firmed  about  them,  and 
whether  they  have  been  sufficiently  pruned.  If  the  water- 
ing is  undertaken,  it  should  be  liberal.  A  young  tree  may 
well  receive  a  pail  of  water,  so  that  the  tissues  may  be 
well  plumped  up  and  revived.  When  the  water  has  settled 
away  about  the  tree,  cover  the  place  with  loose  earth  or 
apply  a  mulch  of  straw  or  similar  material.  It  may  pay 
to  go  over  a  doubtful  plantation  with  a  clean  spray  tank 
and  apply  water  to  all  trees  that  give  signs  of  not  starting. 

Even  bearing  trees  in  dry  places,  as  on  thin  hillsides, 
may  be  carried  through  a  dry  spell  by  one  or  two  thor- 
ough soakings.  Remove  the  fruit  also,  if  the  tree  appears 
to  be  failing. 

Bark-bound  trees. 

When  a  tree  has  been  allowed  to  become  stunted  for 
two  or  three  or  more  years,  it  is  very  likely  to  be  hide- 
bound, so  that  growth  is  impeded,  even  though  the  care 


Hide-bound  Trees  275 

of  the  plantation  be  corrected.  The  bark  becomes  very 
thick  and  dense  and  tight,  and  is  likely  to  be  dull  and 
lifeless  in  color  and  sometimes  moss-covered.  The  newer 
and  fresher  parts  of  the  tree  are  likely  to  show  a  tendency 
to  overgrow  the  lower  parts.  In  all  such  cases,  the  bark 
should  be  softened  so  as  to  allow  the  trunk  to  expand. 
In  general,  the  best  means  of  loosening  up  the  bark  is  to 
scrape  off  the  outer  hard  layer,  if  it  should  become  mossy 
or  entirely  dead,  and  then  to  wash  the  tree  thoroughly 
with  some  soapy  compound.  This  washing  should  be 
done  with  a  broom,  or  preferably  with  a  strong  scrubbing- 
brush,  so  that  the  body  may  be  vigorously  scrubbed.  A 
wash  of  strong  soapsuds  is  very  good.  Tar  soap,  whale-oil 
soap  or  carbolic  soap  are  also  very  useful  for  the  purpose. 
These  washes  have  the  effect  of  softening  the  bark  and 
allowing  the  tree  to  grow  more  readily.  The  effect  of  a 
good  wash  on  orchard  trees  is  often  exceedingly  marked. 
It  is  probable  that  the  potash  in  the  washes  eventually 
becomes  plant-food  by  being  washed  off  to  the  soil, 
although  the  chief  value  of  the  wash  is  no  doubt  the  soft- 
ening and  loosening  effect  on  the  bark.  The  washing  also 
has  the  additional  advantage  of  killing  various  insects 
and  their  eggs  that  may  be  in  or  about  the  bark.  Spraying 
with  bordeaux  mixture,  or  lime-sulfur,  will  kill  the  lichen 
or  "moss"  on  the  trunks. 

Another  means  of  releasing  the  pressure  in  tight-- 
jacket trees  is  to  slit  the  bark  the  entire  length  of  the  trunk 
or  hide-bound  part.  This  is  done  by  thrusting  the  point 
of  a  knife  through  the  bark  until  it  strikes  the  wood,  and 
then  drawing  the  blade  down  the  entire  length  of  the  area 
to  be  treated.  When  the  knife  is  withdrawn,  the  slit  is 
scarcely  visible;  but  after  a  time  the  slit  widens,  as  the 
tree  begins  to  expand.  This  method  is  to  be  advised  only 


276  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

as  an  extreme  resort,  for  it  is  better  to  keep  the  bark  fresh 
and  elastic  by  good  tillage  and  by  the  use  of  washes;  but 
the  slitting  is  of  no  damage  to  the  tree,  as  a  rule. 

Scraping  trees. 

The  outer  layers  of  bark  gradually  die  and  peel  off. 
This  old  rough  bark  is  of  no  direct  use  to  the  plant,  but  it 
probably  affords  some  protection  to  the  tender  tissues 
within.  It  also  affords  a  lodgment  for  insects  and  fungi. 
Trees  in  good  condition  of  growth  and  which  are  watched 

carefully,  will  need  very 
little,  if  any,  attention 
in  the  removing  of  the 
^p      /      bark;  but  if  the  shaggy 
\j      bark  accumulates  to  any 

FIG.  99.  Scraper  for  cleaning  and  repair-       great    extent,   it   is  Well 

to  scrape  off  the  loosest 

part.  The  operation  should  be  performed  when  the  warm 
weather  approaches  in  spring,  or,  hi  fact,  at  almost  any 
time  in  the  growing  season.  A  good  tool  for  this  purpose 
is  an  old  and  thin  hoe,  the  handle  of  which  is  cut  down  to 
about  2  feet  in  length.  This  tool  is  grasped  lightly,  and  is 
raked  up  and  down  the  tree,  and  it  removes  the  rough 
bark  readily.  The  best  tool  for  the  purpose,  however,  is 
that  shown  in  Fig.  99,  which  is  a  steel  plate  with  sharp- 
ground  edges,  fastened  securely  to  a  bent  shank.  This 
tool  may  be  had  of  hardware  dealers,  to  whom  it  is  known 
as  a  box-scraper.  Aside  from  removing  the  loose  bark 
from  the  trunks,  this  tool  is  useful  in  cutting  out  and 
removing  diseased  spots  on  the  bodies  or  in  the  crotches. 
The  wounds  resulting  from  the  barking  of  trees  may  be 
trimmed  down  to  fresh  tissue  by  such  a  tool  and  a  knife, 
and  all  spots  injured  by  bark-borers,  spots  of  pear-blight, 


Scraping  and  Whitewashing  277 

patches  of  canker,  and  the  like,  may  be  cut  away,  and  the 
wounded  surfaces  are  thereafter  covered  with  bordeaux 
mixture  or  paint. 

In  the  scraping  of  trees,  it  is  advisable  to  take  away 
every  particle  of  wounded  and  diseased  tissue,  unless  it 
extends  deep  into  the  wood.  When  the  object  is  simply 
to  take  away  the  rough  and  loose  bark,  the  tree  should  not 
be  scraped  down  to  the  quick;  that  is,  only  the  loose 
exterior  part  should  be  removed. 

The  scraping  of  trees  merely  for  looks  is  to  be  avoided. 
Itinerant  quacks  are  likely  to  make  it  appear  that  all  the 
outer  bark  should  be  removed  from  the  trunk  and  branches 
of  orchard  and  shade  trees;  but,  as  a  general  practice,  the 
bark  should  be  allowed  to  remain  where  it  grows. 

Whitewashing  trees. 

There  is  probably  no  virtue  in  whitewash,  unless  to 
retard  the  buds  in  bright  climates  (page  259),  and  perhaps  to 
keep  the  trunks  cool  and  to  act  as  a  protection  from  sun. 
The  whitewashing  of  tree-trunks  is  a  cleansing  process, 
particularly  when  the  material  is  applied  vigorously  with 
a  brush  or  broom.  Aside  from  these  secondary  uses,  the 
whitewashing  of  trees  has  no  particular  merit.  It  is  not 
employed  by  commercial  orchardists.  If  trunks  and 
branches  are  sprayed  with  lime-sulfur  or  bordeaux  mix- 
ture (as  they  should  be),  there  will  be  little  occasion  for 
resorting  to  whitewash  as  a  cleansing  agent. 

Ringing. 

Observation  of  girdled  branches  shows  that  there  is 
likely  to  be  congestion  of  the  parts  immediately  above  the 
girdle,  indicating  that  those  parts  are  then  overfed; 
that  is,  they  receive  nutriment  at  the  expense  of  the  parts 


278  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

below  the  girdle.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  inten- 
tional girdling  might  be  made  to  increase  the  size  and 
hasten  the  maturity  of  fruit  borne  beyond  the  girdle;  and 
such  is  known  to  be  the  case.  The  girdling  of  grapes  is 
a  common  practice  in  some  regions.  The  girdled  parts 
are  entirely  removed  in  the  next  annual  pruning,  and 
enough  of  the  growing  part  is  left  below  the  girdle  to 
maintain  the  roots  and  trunk.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore, 
that  the  liability  of  injury  to  the  vine  is  all  a  question  of 
how  much  is  left  below  the  girdle  and  how  much  above  it. 
Careful  vineyardists  are  able  to  continue  the  practice 
year  after  year  without  apparent  injury  to  the  vine.  The 
girdling  or  "ringing"  is  done  when  the  grapes  are  about 
the  size  of  peas,  and  a  section  of  bark  about  an  inch  wide 
is  entirely  removed  from  the  cane.  A  gain  in  earliness  of  a 
week  to  ten  days  may  be  secured  by  the  process,  but  it  is 
commonly  thought  that  the  quality  of  the  better  grapes 
is  injured.  In  practice,  only  the  very  earliest  varieties  of 
grapes  are  girdled  or  ringed  for  commercial  purposes;  and 
it  is  doubtful  whether  the  practice  is  to  be  commended. 

Apples  and  other  fruit-trees  are  sometimes  ringed  to 
set  them  into  bearing.  Many  orchards  develop  a  habit  of 
redundant  wood-bearing,  and  these  are  of  ten  thrown  into 
fruiting  by  some  check  to  the  trees,  as  seeding  down, 
girdling,  and  the  like.  Probably  every  orchardist  has  ob- 
served that  the  attacks  of  borers  sometimes  cause  trees 
to  bear.  It  is  an  old  maxim  that  checking  growth  induces 
fruitfulness.  This  may  be  the  explanation  of  the  fact  that 
driving  nails  into  plum  and  peach  trees  sometimes  sets 
the  trees  to  bearing,  and  also  of  the  similar  influence 
exerted  by  a  label  wire  that  has  cut  into  the  bark,  or  of  a 
partial  break  in  a  branch.  Ringing  to  set  trees  into 
bearing  is  an  old  and  well-known  practice,  but  it  is  not  to 


Girdling  for  a  Purpose  279 

be  advised  as  a  general  resort,  although  it  may  be  allow- 
able to  employ  it  on  one  or  two  of  the  minor  branches  of 
an  unprofitable  tree  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
whether  the  tree  needs  a  check.  One  sometimes  sees  a  tree 
on  which  one  or  two  large  limbs  have  been  girdled,  and 
these  limbs  may  be  bending  with  fruit  when  the  remaining 
branches  and  the  adjacent  trees  are  barren. 

Ringing  may  usually  be  performed  with  safety  in 
spring,  when  the  leaves  are  putting  out.  A  ring  of  bark 
2  or  3  inches  wide  may  be  removed  to  the  wood,  and  en- 
tirely encircling  the  limb.  One  hears  of  excellent  results 
following  the  simple  severing  of  the  bark — but  removing 
none  of  it — completely  around  the  tree  with  a  sharp 
knife,  in  spring.  These,  of  course,  are  only  incidental 
operations,  to  be  employed  with  caution.  The  treat- 
ment of  trees  that  have  been  damaged  by  girdling 
is  quite  another  subject;  this  is  discussed  on  page 
290. 

The  regulations  of  societies  and  exhibitions  usually 
prohibit  the  competition  of  fruits  produced  on  girdled 
branches  with  those  produced  normally. 

Top-grafting  bearing  trees. 

One  of  the  important  factors  in  the  secondary  care  of 
an  apple  orchard  is  the  grafting  over  of  old  trees  or  of 
worthless  varieties.  Whether  it  will  pay  to  graft  trees 
after  they  are  fifteen  or  twenty  years  old  depends  on 
how  profitable  the  trees  are  in  their  present  condition.  If 
they  are  bringing  in  no  return,  then  nothing  can  be  lost  if 
they  are  grafted;  and  if  the  trees  are  strong  and  healthy, 
and  not  too  old  to  make  vigorous  growth,  there  is  reason 
to  expect  that  much  may  be  gained.^  If  the  operation 
of  top-grafting  is  properly  done,  the  trees  ought  to  be 


280 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


FIG.  100.    Top-grafted  young  apple 
tree,  after  four  years. 


completely  changed  over  to 
a  new  variety  in  three  or  four 
years  (Fig.  100).  It  should 
be  said,  however,  that  the 
careful  fruit-grower  will  find 
out  whether  his  trees  are  to 
be  profitable  or  not  long 
before  they  reach  the  age  of 
fifteen  or  twenty  years.  If 
there  are  strong  indications 
that  the  varieties  are  un- 
suited  to  his  needs,  the  sooner 
they  are  grafted  the  better. 

In  grafting  the  top  of  an 
old  apple  tree,  it  should  be 

borne  in  mind  that  the  operation  at  best  is  harsh,  and  that 

the  top  should  be  replaced 

as  quickly  as  possible.  Effort  • 

should   be  made    to    graft 

only  limbs  of  comparatively 

small  size    (say   not   more 

than    1J/2   to   2    inches   in 

diameter,    and    preferably 

less),  and  to  set  very  many 

cions,  even  if  some  of  them 

need  to   be  cut  out   after 

two   or  three  years.     The 

setting  of  so  many  cions  is 

somewhat    expensive,    but 

the   orchardist    should    be 

able  to  do  the  work  himself. 

Finally,  it   should   not   be 

,      i    ,  i  j    i    j  FIG.  101.    Undesirable  form  of 

expected  that  a  remodeled  top-grafted  tree. 


Top-grafting 


281 


old  tree  shall  be  of  as  good  and  handy  shape  as  one  that 
has  been  grown  properly  from  the  start. 

In  forming  the  new  top,  care  should  be  taken  to 
avoid  bad  crotches,  such  as  are  represented  in  Fig.  101 
(from  G.  H.  Powell,  Del.  Bull.,  as  is  also  Fig.  100). 
The  new  scaffold  branches  should  alternate  and  should 
spread  widely.  Sometimes  the  trunk  is  grafted  midway, 
and  the  top  taken  out  farther  up;  in  such  cases,  the  union 
usually  remains  apparent  throughout  the  life  of  the  tree 
(Fig.  102). 

Grafting^wax. 

The  waxes 
used  in  grafting 
are  of  two  gen- 
eral kinds, — the 
resin-beeswax 
preparations, 
and  the  alcoholic 
waxes.  The 
former  kinds  are 
hard  waxes  that 
must  be  worked  up  and  warmed  in  the  hands  when  they 
are  applied,  or  sometimes  they  are  melted  and  run  on  in 
a  liquid  state;  the  latter  kinds  are  liquid  or  paste  plastics 
that  harden  on  exposure  (on  evaporation  of  the  alcohol). 

Standard  wax. — Resin,  4  parts  by  weight;  beeswax,  2  parts  by 
weight;  rendered  tallow,  1  part  by  weight.  Melt  all  together  in  a 
kettle  over  a  stove,  avoiding  boiling;  then  pour  the  liquid  into 
a  pail  or  tub  of  water  to  harden;  then  work  with  the  hands,  pulling 
it  to  a  grain;  make  up  into  convenient  balls  or  skeins.  It  will  keep 
for  years. 

Softer  wax. — Resin,  4  parts  by  weight;  beeswax,  2  parts  by  weight; 
linseed  oil,  1  part  or  more,  according  as  the  material  must  be  hard  or 


FIG.  102.   The  place  of  the  graft  on  the  trunk  of 
an  old  apple  tree. 


282  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

soft.  Adaptable  for  use  in  cold  weather.  On  account  of  the  impurities 
in  linseed  oil,  this  wax  is  now  likely  to  be  unreliable;  and  it  may  be 
better  to  use  a  greater  quantity  of  tallow  in  the  Standard  wax  given 
above. 

Alcoholic  wax. — White  resin,  1  pound;  beef  tallow,  1  ounce;  tur- 
pentine, 1  tablespoonful;  alcohol,  5  ounces  (more  or  less).  Melt  the 
resin;  add  the  tallow;  remove  from  fire  and  gradually  stir  in  the  tur- 
pentine and  alcohol.  Keep  closed.  Apply  with  brush. 

Bagging  fruits. 

When  it  is  desired  to  secure  extra-fine  fruit,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  tie  up  the  fruits  in  paper  bags.  This  keeps 
away  the  insects  and  fungi,  and  protects  the  fruit  from 
birds  (although  the  whiteness  of  the  bags  is  likely  to 
attract  thieves  at  night),  and  the  fruit  is  likely  to  ripen 
later  or  at  least  to  hang  later,  and  to  be  of  higher  quality 
because  of  the  warmth  that  the  bag  affords.  The  bag- 
ging of  grapes  is  a  frequent  practice  when  exhibition  or  test 
specimens  are  desired;  it  is  also  employed  in  commercial 
work  with  grapes.  It  is  customary  to  pin  the  bags  on  the 
clusters  when  the  grapes  are  a  third  to  a  half  grown.  Bags 
made  of  mosquito  netting  are  very  useful  later  in  the  sea- 
son when  it  is  desired  to  secure  the  full  color  of  highly 
colored  fruit. 

If  it  is  desired  to  bring  out  the  blossoms  of  a  tree  very 
early  in  the  spring,  it  may  be  done  by  tying  grocers'  bags 
on  the  spurs  when  the  buds  first  begin  to  swell. 

Winter  preparations. 

In  winter,  plants  are  exposed  to  injuries  of  wind,  snow, 
water,  ice,  mice,  rabbits,  and  the  like.  Before  the  season 
closes,  the  farmer  should  see  that  young  trees  stand  stiff 
and  straight,  and  in  order  to  keep  them  rigid  and  to  afford 
good  surface  drainage,  it  is  sometimes  well  (especially 


To  Prepare  for  Winter  283 

with  newly  set  trees  in  cold  climates)  to  bank  up  the  trees 
with  earth  to  the  height  of  6  or  8  inches.  In  making  the 
bank,  the  workman  should  be  cautioned  not  to  leave 
holes,  from  which  the  earth  is  taken,  close  about  the  tree, 
for  the  water  is  likely  to  stand  in  them,  and  it  may  do 
harm.  In  small-fruit,  grape  and  nursery  plantations,  it  is 
often  advisable  to  plow  a  furrow  toward  the  plants,  on 
either  side,  in  the  autumn.  Care  should  be  taken  to  pro- 
vide for  top-drainage  if  the  conformation  of  the  land  is 
such  as  to  hold  surface  water. 

The  protecting  of  bush-fruits,  grapes  and  even  trees 
from  winter  cold  has  been  discussed  on  pages  257-259. 

RENOVATING   OLD   ORCHARDS 

It  is  impossible  to  give  any  specific  method  of  pro- 
cedure when  it  is  desired  to  renovate  an  old  and  profitless 
orchard.  The  first  question  is,  whether  the  orchard  is 
worth  renovating, — whether  it  is  too  old,  too  few  trees 
remaining,  trees  too  much  weakened  by  borers  and 
rotten  hearts  and  other  injuries,  or  trees  so  very  tall  and 
sprawly  as  to  promise  little  return  for  the  effort  that  must 
be  expended  on  them. 

If  the  orchard  is  thought  to  be  worth  it,  then  the  next 
requisite  is  a  change  of  heart  on  the  part  of  the  owner. 
It  is  then  necessary  to  discover  the  causes  of  its  unprofit- 
ableness— to  diagnose  the  difficulty — and  forthwith  to  go 
straight  at  the  root  of  the  evil.  It  must  be  remembered, 
also,  that  a  long-neglected  orchard  cannot  be  expected  to 
arrive  at  the  profitable  condition  which  trees  enjoy  that 
have  received  proper  care  from  the  beginning,  no  matter 
how  thorough  the  means  of  recuperating  it  may  be.  At 
the  best,  one  can  make  only  an  apology  for  long  years  of 


284 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


carelessness  and  mistakes.  If  the  grower  once  arrives  at  a 
clear  conception  of  the  agencies  that  make  for  productive- 
ness, he  will  readily  perceive  what  the  trouble  with  his 
orchard  may  be.  Most  neglected  apple  orchards  need  a 
general  overhauling, — tillage,  fertilizing,  pruning,  spray- 
ing, sometimes  top-grafting,  and  often  removal  of  part  of 
the  trees. 

The  land  must  be  tilled.  This  may  demand  a  heavy 
trimming  up  of  the  trees  to  allow  a  team  to  work;  and  in 

many  of  the  forest-like 
old  orchards  it  may  be 
economy  to  cut  out  a 
third  or  half  the  trees 
at  the  start.  Perhaps 
the  roots  are  so  high 
that  the  land  cannot 
be  plowed.  In  such 
case,  the  land  may  be 
broken  up  in  the  spring, 
before  the  earth  be- 
comes hard,  by  means 
of  spading-harrows,  disc-harrows,  spring-tooth  harrows 
and  similar  vigorous  tools.  Or  corn  and  other  grain  may 
be  dropped  freely  in  holes  made  with  a  crow-bar,  and  the 
hogs  then  turned  in  to  root  for  it. 

The  earth-mulch  once  secured  to  save  the  moisture, 
it  may  next  be  necessary  to  apply  plant-food,  either  in 
the  form  of  stable  manures,  green  crops  or  concentrated 
fertilizers,  or  in  all  these  forms  together. 

It  is  probable  that  the  trees  will  need  heavy  pruning 
(Figs.  103,  104,  from  Jarvis).  But  this  pruning  is  for 
the  purpose  of  correcting  the  results  of  years  of  neglect, 
not  for  the  purpose,  directly,  of  making  the  trees  to 


Fia.  103.    A  good  type  of  neglected  apple 
tree  for  renovation. 


Neglected  Orchards  285 

bear.  In  fact,  the  effect  of  heavy  pruning  is  likely  to  be 
the  very  opposite  of  fruit-bearing;  but  it  must  be  done  in 
most  old  orchards  to  bring  the  trees  back  into  manageable 
shape,  to  produce  new  and  fresh  wood  for  fruit-bearing, 
and  to  thin  the  top  sufficiently  to  allow  the  fruit  to 
develop  to  something  like  perfection  of  size  and  quality. 
Weak  trees  may  sometimes  be  re-invigorated  by  this 
heavy  pruning  alone.  Severe  heading-in  of  decrepit  peach 
trees  often  accomplishes  ttiis.  Tall  long-armed  apple 
trees  may  sometimes  be 
headed -back  severely 
for  the  purpose  of  estab- 
lishing a  new  top,  if 
the  trees  still  retain 
much  vigor.  When  the 
new  wood  is  once 
formed  and  the  tree  has 
re-established  its  equi- 

1  i  b  r  i  U  m,    fruit-bearing    p^.  104.  The  same  tree  as  Fig.  103,  after  the 

may    be    expected    to 

begin,  if  soil  is  good  and  other  conditions  are  right. 

It  will  next  be  necessary  to  begin  hunting  for  borers 
and  other  squatters  and  campers.  The  trees  will  very 
likely  need  to  be  thoroughly  sprayed  to  dislodge  the 
army  of  hangers-on  that  has  held  undisputed  possession 
of  the  territory  perhaps  for  a  score  of  years.  Cut  out  dis- 
eased spots,  fill  the  holes  with  wax  or  cement,  remove  dis- 
eased limbs,  take  off  the  shaggy  hanging  bark.  In  other 
words,  it  may  be  necessary  to  give  the  trees  a  general 
cleaning  up. 

If  the  trees  are  of  the  wrong  varieties  and  are  still 
vigorous,  it  will  probably  pay  to  top-graft  them,  as 
already  explained  (page  279),  if  they  are  apples,  pears, 


286  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

oranges  or  cherries.    Old  and  poor  peach,  apricot,  plum 
and  quince  trees  would  better  be  pulled  out. 

Much  good  work  has  been  done  in  the  renovation  of 
neglected  orchards,  particularly  apple  orchards,  and 
results  have  been  published  widely  in  bulletin  and  press. 
These  tests  constitute  some  of  the  best  applications  of 
investigation  to  horticulture;  and  they  also  demonstrate 
that  in  existing  profitless  plantations  the  country  has  a 
latent  asset  as  responsive  to  development  as  local  mines, 
quarries  and  streams. 

Why  are  orchards  barren? 

It  may  aid  the  grower  to  analyze  the  difficulty  if  he 
asks  himself  the  above  question,  and  then  tries  to  answer 
it.  The  commonest  reason  why  old  orchards  are  barren  is 
because  they  are  in  sod, — that  is,  because  they  are  unbilled 
and  unfed.  There  are  men  enough  in  the  country  who 
have  taught  that  sodded  orchards  are  wrongly  managed 
orchards.  They  have  been  combatted  by  citations  of 
orchards  that  are  in  sod  but  are  still  productive.  They 
have  replied  that,  in  some  cases,  for  a  combination  of 
reasons,  orchards  may  do  well  in  continuous  sod,  but  they 
have  still  fallen  back  on  the  rationale  of  land  management, 
and  have  said  that  the  system  is  wrong,  nevertheless. 
Time  is  rapidly  demonstrating  the  accuracy  of  their 
teaching.  It  is  a  case  in  which  a  handful  of  philosophy 
is  worth  more  than  a  forkful  of  facts. 

If  one  asks  why  orchards  are  barren,  let  him  fill  out 
the  following  synopsis  by  way  of  review  of  some  of  the 
principles  enunciated  in  this  book: 

The  nature  of  the  problem:  Each  case  must  be  investigated  by 
itself;  teaching  must  be  along  the  line  of  essentials,  not  statements 
of  rules.  The  eight  general  factors  that  determine  productiveness  are : 


Factors  of  Productiveness  287 

1.  THE  LOCATION  FACTOR. 

Improper  climate,  aspect,  land;  insufficient  drainage. 

2.  THE  PLANTATION  FACTOR. 

(a)  Age  of  trees,  (6)  the  "stand," — whether  too  thick. 

3.  THE  TILLAGE  FACTOR. 

Soil-structure.  Fertility  as  influenced  by  (a)  fineness,  (6) 
conditions  of  root-hold,  (c)  life  processes,  (d)  air-hold- 
ing capacity,  (e)  water-holding  capacity. 

Sod  in  orchards. 

Cover-crops. 

4.  THE  FERTILITY  FACTOR. 

Conceptions  of  the  uses  of  nitrogen,  potash,  phosphoric 
acid,  lime,  in  fruit-production. 

5.  THE  PRUNING  FACTOR. 

(a)  The  relation  of  pruning  to  wood-growth  and  fruit- 
growth,  (6)  reshaping  of  the  top  to  bring  it  within  reach 
and  to  make  it  amenable  to  treatment,  (c)  reinvigorating 
the  tree. 

6.  THE  VARIETY  FACTOR. 

(a)  Unproductive  varieties,  (6)  unadapted  varieties,  (c) 
impotent  varieties,  (d)  top-working. 

7.  THE  PROPAGATION  FACTOR. 

(a)  The  individuality  of  the  tree,  and  its  power  to  perpetu- 
ate its  characteristics,  (6)  poor  physical  union  of  cion 
and  stock. 

8.  THE  PARASITE  FACTOR. 

(a)  Fungi,  (6)  insects.  Spraying. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
ACCIDENTS  AND  INJURIES 

WHAT  may  happen  to  a  fruit-plantation  is  beyond  the 
wisdom  of  any  man  to  foresee.  One  may  be  sure  of  having 
difficulties  that  are  not  set  down  in  the  books.  Hail, 
wind,  frost,  drought,  roaming  live-stock,  bad  places  in 
the  land,  trees  not  true  to  name,  are  among  the  proba- 
bilities. Some  of  the  prevailing  injuries  that  may  be 
more  or  less  remedied  are  mentioned  in  this  separate 
chapter. 

Probably  the  greatest  menace  to  the  fruit-plantation 
is  the  hired  man.  Some  men  have  no  feeling  for  a  tree. 
They  will  run  over  young  trees,  bark  and  scratch  old  ones, 
and  break  the  limbs  with  no  blush  of  conscience  and 
with  no  care  to  bind  up  and  mend  the  wounds.  They  are 
likely  to  work  special  evil  in  grubbing  for  borers,  cutting 
more  than  is  necessary,  covering  up  shiftless  work,  and 
perhaps  leaving  the  borer  for  bait.  Discrimination  in  the 
choice  of  help  is  a  prime  consideration  on  a  fruit-farm,  not 
only  in  the  care  of  the  trees  but  also  in  the  handling  of  the 
fruit  after  it  is  mature.  Herein  is  one  of  the  advantages 
of  living  in  a  fruit  country,  where  most  of  the  hired  help 
has  had  some  training  in  the  business.  Green  and  in- 
experienced hands  should  not  be  left  alone  in  a  fruit- 
plantation.  The  only  safe  man  for  such  a  plantation  is 
one  who  feels  that  the  welfare  of  the  fruit-trees  or  plants 
is  his  first  consideration;  he  must  like  the  fruit-growing 
business  and  be  proud  of  his  connection  with  it. 

(288) 


Depredations  289 

MISCELLANEOUS   INJURIES 

The  fruit-grower  will  not  expect  to  find  all  his  troubles 
explained  in  a  book.  There  are  some  difficulties  that  he 
must  solve  alone  and  for  himself.  Yet  some  of  the  acci- 
dents that  his  trees  are  almost  sure  to  meet  sooner  or 
later  may  be  discussed  briefly. 

Depredations  of  live-stock. 

Injuries  of  trees  can  be  prevented  in  sheep  pastures 
and  hog  pastures  by  giving  the  animals  plenty  to  eat  and 
especially  plenty  to  drink.  They  are  very  likely  to  gnaw 
the  trees  for  the  moisture.  If,  however,  the  animals  begin 
to  injure  the  trees,  the  only  recourse  is  either  to  take  them 
out  or  to  build  wide  racks  about  the  trunks;  but  any  sort 
of  rack  or  fence  prevents  the  proper  care  of  the  tree.  Cer- 
tain animals  in  a  herd  of  swine  may  be  specially  vicious 
about  trees,  and  they  should  be  removed.  Horned  cattle 
(or  cattle  of  any  kind)  are  not  in  place  in  an  orchard.  If 
the  orchard  adjoins  a  pasture,  the  fences  should  be  kept 
in  good  repair. 

Birds. 

The  incursions  of  birds  in  cherries  and  small-fruits 
may  sometimes  be  overlooked  by  planting  in  such  quantity 
that  the  birds  may  get  their  fill  without  ruining  the 
plantation.  Cherry  orchards  may  sometimes  be  pro- 
tected by  planting  a  number  of  trees  of  very  early  sweet 
varieties  around  the  outside  of  the  field.  Some  persons 
advise  the  free  planting  of  mulberries  to  feed  the  birds; 
but  they  might  increase  the  difficulty  by  attracting  more 
birds  to  the  place.  In  some  cases,  it  is  impossible  to  save 
the  fruit  unless  fire-arms  are  used;  but  it  is  usually  suffi- 
s 


290  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

cient  to  fire  blank  cartridges  a  few  times  to  scare  the  birds 
away,  and  thereby  obviate  the  necessity  of  killing  them. 
Small  trees  and  garden-plats  of  small-fruits  may  be 
protected  from  birds  by  means  of  netting  manufactured 
for  that  purpose. 

Rodents. 

Mice  and  other  vermin  injure  trees  mostly  in  cold 
winters,  when  green  food  is  scarce.  They  are  likely  to  be 
especially  bad  in  new  countries.  The  best  preventive  of 
injuries  from  mice  is  to  see  that  there  is  no  material,  as 
dead  grass  or  weeds,  close  to  the  base  of  the  tree,  in  which 
the  rodents  can  nest.  If  the  litter  is  not  taken  away,  it 
should  at  least  be  tramped  down  tightly  before  winter 
sets  in.  The  best  preventive  of  injury  by  rabbits  is  not  to 
have  the  rabbits.  If  the  brush-piles  and  old  fence-rows, 
in  which  the  animals  harbor,  are  cleaned  away,  there  will 
commonly  be  little  trouble;  and,  at  all  events,  a  smart  boy 
who  is  fond  of  hunting  will  ordinarily  solve  the  question 
without  help,  so  far  as  the  game  laws  allow. 

If  mice  are  very  damaging,  it  may  be  advisable  to  put 
cylinders  of  wire  netting  about  the  trees,  as  elsewhere 
recommended  (page  293).  Rolls  of  birch  bark  are  some- 
times used  in  regions  where  the  paper-birch  grows.  It 
should  be  considered,  however,  that  such  covers  for  the 
bodies  of  trees  interfere  with  clean  culture  about  the  base 
of  the  tree,  and  they  are  likely  to  afford  a  most  excellent 
place  for  the  lodgment  of  insects. 

Girdled  trees. 

Trees  that  have  been  girdled  by  rabbits,  mice  or 
otherwise  should  have  the  injured  parts  pared  down  to 
live  tissue  and  the  wounded  surface  then  covered  with  an 


Treating  Girdled  Trees  291 

antiseptic  dressing.  It  is  also  advisable  to  bind  up  the 
girdle  with  some  material  like  grafting-wax,  that  will 
keep  the  wood  moist  and  thereby  allow  the  ascent  of  the 
sap-water;  for  the  water  rises  in  the  tree  through  the 
young  soft  wood,  and  not  between  the  wood  and  the  bark. 
The  bark  is  formed  over  the  wound  by  material  that  is 
redistributed  through  the  tree  after  it  has  been  elaborated 
in  the  leaves;  that  is,  the  reparative  tissue  on  the  trunk 
is  formed  by  elaborated  sap  that  is  on  its  downward 
course.  If  the  woody  tissue  is  kept  soft  and  fresh,  the 
tree  may  continue  to  live  for  years,  but  there  will  be  a 
deposition  of  woody  matter  above  the  girdle,  while  the 
part  below  will  not  increase  in  diameter.  This  is  well 
known  to  all  observing  fruit-growers.  After  a  while  the 
younger  wood  is  likely  to  become  hard  and  dry,  prevent- 
ing the  upward  passage  of  root-water,  and  the  tree  then 
starves  to  death;  or,  the  top  may  become  so  heavy  that 
the  plant  breaks  off  at  the  point  of  constriction.  It  is, 
therefore,  necessary  that  the  orchardist  give  careful  atten- 
tion to  his  label  wires,  to  prevent  them  from  doing  great 
injury.  It  is  always  best  to  take  the  nursery  labels  from 
young  trees  when  they  are  set,  and  to  depend  on  a  map 
record  for  the  names  of  the  varieties;  or,  if  the  label  is 
left  on  the  tree,  it  is  best  to  hang  it  on  one  of  the  minor 
limbs,  rather  than  on  the  trunk;  or  a  less  dangerous 
label  may  be  substituted.  In  adjusting  the  label  wire  to 
the  tree,  it  is  important  that  only  the  ends  of  the  wire  be 
twisted  together,  thereby  providing  a  large  loop  in  which 
the  limb  may  expand.  The  label  may  be  held  tightly  to 
the  limb  by  pinching  the  wires  together  with  the  fingers. 
Trees  freshly  girdled  in  the  growing  time  of  spring  may 
be  expected  to  heal  over  before  the  season  is  past,  if  the 
girdled  zone  is  not  more  than  4  or  5  inches  wide,  and  if  the 


292 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


surface  of  the  wood,  as  already  explained,  is  kept  fresh. 
It  is  usually  best,  however,  if  no  connection  of  bark 
remains,  to  bridge  over  the  girdle  by  cions.  These  cions 
are  of  the  same  kind  as  those  used  for  ordinary  grafting. 
The  edges  of  the  girdle  are  pared  down  to  fresh  wood,  and 
the  cions  are  cut  2  or  3  inches  longer  than  the  width  of 
the  girdle.  They  are  whittled  to  a  wedge  shape  on  either 
end,  and  these  ends  are  inserted  between  the  bark  and 
the  wood  on  the  upper  and  lower  rims  of  the  girdle.  They 
should  be  so  numerous  as  almost  to  touch  each  other  en- 
tirely around  the  tree.  After  they  are  inserted,  a  strip  of 
cloth  should  be  bound  tightly  upon  the  bark  over  their 
ends,  and  the  whole  girdle  should 
then  be  waxed  over.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  pour  alcoholic  wax  over  the  work, 
allowing  it  to  run  in  between  the 
cions  and  cover  the  edges  of  the 
bark  and  the  exposed  wood  surface. 


Hail  injuries. 

The  injuries  caused  by  hail  are 
very  often  confounded  with  those 
wrought  by  borers  and  other  pests, 
and  it  is  the  delight  of  many  persons 
to  endeavor  to  puzzle  the  experi- 
menters and  teachers  with  specimens 
of  such  work.  Plum  limbs  injured  by 
hail-stones  are  shown  natural  size  in  Fig.  105.  Nothing 
special  can  be  done  for  such  injuries.  They  soon  heal. 

Sun-scald. 

Often  it  is  necessary  to  shade  the  trunks  of  young  trees 
to  prevent  sun-scald,  particularly  in  the  hot  plains  region. 


FIG.  105.  Injuries  by  hail- 
stones. 


Injuries  by  Sun  Scald 


293 


In  the  nursery-rows,  the  bodies  of  the  trees  are  ordinarily 
well  shaded.    There  are  various  means  of  providing  this 
shade,  but  the  best  results  may  be  expected  to  follow 
some  protection   that  breaks 
the  force  of  the  sun  and  does 
not  entirely  obstruct  it;  for 
in  the  latter  case,  the  bark 
does   not   so   readily  become 

inured  to  exposure  to  sunshine.  3&jytKJir*^^HK&      J 
Finely    woven    wire    netting    *$  M 

rolled  around  the  tree  (in  more 
than  one  thickness,  if  neces- 
sary), is  said  to  afford  very 
good  protection  for  this  pur- 
pose, as  shown  in  Fig.  106 
(but  preferably  extending 
higher  up  the  trunk).  The 
upper  part  of  the  trunk  is 
likely  to  be  shaded  sufficiently 
by  the  branches,  although  this 
is  not  always  the  case.  These 
rolls  of  wire  netting  also  serve 
a  purpose  in  keeping  away 
mice  and  other  vermin.  A  box 
of  boards  (Fig.  107,  from  S.  B. 
Green)  is  sometimes  used  to  protect  from  sun  and  other 
injuries. 

Hansen  writes  as  follows  on  this  subject  for  Dakota 
conditions:  "Trees  planted  and  kept  with  stem  leaning 
toward  the  southwest  until  the  branches  shade  the  trunk, 
are  free  from  it.  Some  fruit-growers  set  a  board,  or  two 
boards  nailed  together  trough-fashion,  on  the  southwest 
side;  others  use  corn-stalks,  wire  netting  or  lath.  Low- 


FIG.  106.   Tree  protected  from  sun 
and  rabbits  by  a  roll  of  netting. 


294 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


headed  trees  are  best  for  severe  locations;  in  more  favor- 
able sections  trees  may  be  headed  2>£  to  3  feet  high.  Tall 
trunks  suffer  more  from  sun-scald  and  severe  winds." 

Trees  are  liable  to  injury  from  sun-scald  after  a  heavy 
pruning,  especially  if  they  have  been  allowed  to  grow  too 

thick  in  the  first  place. 
Cutting  out  heavily 
from  the  center  of  the 
tree  exposes  the  oblique 
and  horizontal  limbs  to 
the  intense  heat  of  the 
sun,  and  the  bark  is 
liable  to  blister  and  be 
killed,  after  which  borers 
are  very  likely  to  finish 
the  work  of  destruction. 
In  all  interior  hot  re- 
gions, therefore,  it  is 
well  to  exercise  caution 
in  the  pruning  of  the 
tops  of  trees.  It  is  better  to  keep  the  top  somewhat  thin 
and  open  from  the  start,  rather  than  to  allow  it  to 
become  overgrown  and  then  to  make  a  sudden  correction. 
Perhaps  sun-scald  is  a  form  of  winter  injury  due  to  the 
rapid  fall  of  temperature  when  the  sun  leaves  the  south- 
western side  of  the  tree;  but  the  above  treatment  applies 
in  any  case. 

Borers. 

The  best  treatment  for  borers  and  similar  insect 
pests  is  to  watch  the  plants  carefully,  and  to  dig  the 
insects  out  at  least  twice  every  year.  In  grounds  kept  in 
clean  tillage,  such  insects  are  rarely  so  troublesome  as 


FIG.  107.  A  boxed  apple  tree. 


Hunting  Borers  295 

in  neglected  areas.  This  is  both  because. the  insects  find 
places  of  lodgment  in  neglected  orchards,  and  because  the 
fruit-grower  is  so  seldom  present  that  he  does  not  discover 
them  in  season.  Orchards  should  be  gone  over  every 
spring  and  autumn  for  borers;  this  is  patient  hand-and- 
knee  work,  but  it  is  the  only  sure  way.  The  grower  is 
certain  of  the  borer  when  he  has  him  under  the  knife. 

Borers  in  the  stalks  of  currants  and  raspberries  are 
despatched  by  cutting  the  canes  and  burning  them.  The 
affected  canes  usually  show  lack  of  vigor,  yellowing  or 
wilting  leaves,  and  are  sometimes  limp. 

Peach  trees  are  attacked  by  two  very  destructive 
borers, — the  regular  large  borer  larva,  %  inch  long  when 
mature,  and  the  very  small  borer  beetle  known  as  the 
bark-beetle  or  pine-hole  borer.  The  treatment  for  the 
former  is  to  dig  out  in  spring  and  autumn,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  apply  gas-tar  or  coal-tar  from  the  roots  to 
1  foot  or  so  from  the  ground.  The  bark-beetle  usually 
attacks  trees  that  are  not  in  full  vigor,  as  those  that  have 
been  shattered  by  winter  cold  or  lessened  in  vitality  by 
other  borers,  lack  of  tillage,  overbearing  and  general 
neglect.  The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  put  the  trees  in  vig- 
orous condition;  then  whitewash  the  trunk  and  branches 
late  in  March,  in  July  and  in  October  (in  the  North). 

Some  of  the  protective  devices  or  materials  are  more 
or  less  effective  against  borers  in  orchard  trees;  but  the 
grower  should  not  lessen  his  vigilance.  Wire  screen  is 
good  if  made  tight  about  the  top  and  where  the  edges 
come  together  and  if  it  stands  far  enough  from  the  tree 
to  prevent  the  beetle  from  ovipositing  through  it.  Tarred 
paper  is  sometimes  used,  but  it  often  injures  trees  if 
allowed  to  remain  in  warm  weather.  Gas-tar  may  be 
applied  about  the  crown  of  peach  and  other  trees,  extend- 


296  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

ing  a  foot  or  so  above  the  ground.  Coal-tar  is  used  with 
safety.  Soap  and  carbolic  washes  in  early  summer  are 
effective  against  the  flat-headed  borer  (this  borer  is  likely 
to  work  on  the  sun-scalded  or  injured  parts  of  the  trunk 
and  larger  limbs) ;  probably  if  the  trunks  are  well  drenched 
with  the  lime-sulfur  spray,  the  injury  will  be  lessened. 
The  use  of  axle-grease  is  not  advisable.  It  is  possible  that 
no  injury  would  result,  but  on  the  other  hand  if  the  grease 
should  contain  any  of  the  oils,  which  soak  into  the  trunk, 
or  any  turpentine,  it  might  kill  the  trees.  The  addition 
of  sulfur  will  do  no  harm,  and  also  no  good. 

In  short-generation  plants,  as  the  small-fruits,  rotation 
of  plantations  is  a  very  important  means  of  circumventing 
borers  and  some  other  pests.  This  is  specially  true  of  the 
strawberry,  in  preventing  depredations  of  the  root-borer, 
root-louse  and  white  grub.  Short,  sharp  rotations,  clean 
tillage,  burning  of  rubbish  about  the  plantation,  vigorous 
plants,  are  very  effective  means  of  getting  ahead  of  many 
pests. 

Cankers  and  bad  spots;  wounds. 

Rough  and  sunken  places  in  the  bark  on  apple  trees 
may  be  cankers,  produced  by  a  parasitic  fungus  (the  canker 
of  the  peach  is  produced  by  the  same  fungus  that  causes 
the  fruit-rot) ;  smooth,  dead,  more  or  less  sunken  spots  on 
apples,  pears  and  quinces  may  be  due  to  pear-blight. 
There  are  other  kinds  of  bad  spots  in  the  bark,  the  cause 
perhaps  unknown.  In  some  cases  they  may  be  due  to  the 
work  of  the  flat-headed  borer  or  to  sun-scald  (page  292) . 

The  treatment  of  cankers  is  described  as  follows  by 
Jehle  (Cornell  Circ.  26) :  "Whatever  the  origin  of  cankers, 
their  treatment  is  essentially  the  same  except  that  in  the 
case  of  an  infectious  disease,  such  as  the  brown-rot  canker, 


Treating  Cankers  '  297 

the  work  must  be  done  with  great  care  in  order  to  insure 
that  all  trace  of  the  fungus  is  eliminated.  Whenever  the 
cankers  occur  on  limbs  that  can  be  removed  without 
detriment  to  the  tree,  it  is  best  to  remove  them  while 
pruning;  care  being  taken  to  cut  several  inches  below  any 
visible  injury,  as  the  living  fungus  in  the  brown-rot  canker 
extends  back  beyond  any  external  evidence  of  the  dis- 
ease, and  if  allowed  to  remain  will  continue  to  infect 
healthy  wood.  If  the  cankers  occur  on  limbs  that  it  is 
desirable  to  save,  they  should  be  cleaned  out  by  removing 
all  the  diseased  wood  a  short  distance  back  of  any  visible 
evidence  of  the  disease.  The  diseased  wood  and  bark  can 
be  readily  detected  by  its  brown  color.  In  the  brown-rot 
cankers  it  is  very  important  to  remove  all  this  discolored 
tissue,  as  it  is  in  this  tissue  that  the  fungus  lives  and  if  it  is 
not  removed  the  disease  will  spread.  The  amount  of  bark 
that  it  is  necessary  to  remove  depends  on  the  extent  of 
the  diseased  part.  Sometimes  the  fungus  has  extended  so 
far  beyond  the  healthy  callus  that  it  is  necessary  to  remove 
it  entirely;  while  at  other  times  the  fungus  may  have 
extended  but  slightly  into  the  upper  and  lower  extremities 
of  the  callus  and  it  is  necessary  only  to  remove  a  small 
part.  It  is  always  well  to  leave  as  much  of  the  callus  as 
possible,  to  facilitate  healing.  All  the  dead  bark  and  twigs 
should  be  removed.  It  is  not  necessary  to  remove  any  of 
the  solid  wood  except  to  smooth  the  treated  part.  The 
wound  should  be  pointed  at  the  upper  and  lower  extremi- 
ties and  the  bark  should  be  cut  at  right  angles  to  the 
wood.  As  soon  as  the  wound  has  dried  out  it  should  be 
coated  with  gas-tar.  The  gas-tar  acts  as  a  disinfectant 
and  preservative,  and  no  other  treatment  is  necessary. 
Trials  have  been  made  in  order  to  determine  this  point, 
and  it  is  now  evident  that  the  use  of  corrosive  sub- 


298  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

limate  or  lime-sulfur  solution  in  addition  to  the  gas-tar  is 
unnecessary." 

The  collar-rots  are  infections,  or  winter  injuries,  about 
the  base  of  the  tree.  Often  they  girdle  the  trunk.  Some 
varieties  seem  to  be  particularly  liable,  as  the  Tomp- 
kins  King  among  apples.  Whether  there  are  specific 
organisms  for  these  collar-rots  seems  not  to  be  known. 
Sometimes  they  may  be  cankers,  or  general  infections 
following  the  "barking"  of  trees,  or  in  windshakes.  In 
any  case,  the  remedy  is  to  cut  away  the  infected  parts 
and  to  paint  the  area  as  for  cankers.  Very  bad  wounds 
should  be  bound  up,  to  prevent  evaporation  and  to  afford 
protection.  If  the  rot  is  discovered  before  it  has  made 
great  headway,  it  may  sometimes  be  stopped.  Badly 
infested  trees  show  yellowing  and  general  loss  of  vigor. 

Similar  treatment  may  be  given  to  "barked"  trees, 
where  they  have  been  hit  by  the  whiffletree  or  plow;  but 
as  these  places  are  not  infected  if  the  wound  is  fresh,  no 
other  treatment  may  be  required  than  to  pare  down  the 
ragged  bark  and  to  bind  up  the  wound  in  any  material 
that  will  prevent  drying  out  and  protect  it  from  weather. 
The  best  material  is  soft  adhesive  grafting-wax,  wound 
over  tightly  with  a  cloth.  Clay  and  cow  manure  are 
sometimes  used.  See  that  the  codlin-moth  does  not  pupate 
in  the  bandages,  and  that  the  strips  do  not  become  a 
harbor  for  other  insects. 

Rotten  places  in  limbs  and  trunks  may  be  gouged  out 
to  fresh  wood,  the  ulterior  painted,  and  the  cavity  filled 
tight  with  cement. 

Root-galls. 

The  roots  of  many  fruit  trees  and  brambles  are  very 
likely  to  be  affected  with  large  tuber-like  swellings 


The  Winter  Injuries  299 

or  galls,  that  have  been  the  subject  of  much  uneasiness 
with  fruit-growers;  these  galls  are  contagious,  being 
produced  by  a  soil  bacterium.  The  "hairy  root"  of  apples 
and  pears  is  a  form  of  the  same  disease.  The  organism 
attacks  many  kinds  of  plants.  It  is  now  thought  they  do 
not  often  produce  great  injury  in  the  orchard,  but  they 
are  always  to  be  avoided,  and  trees  with  galls  would  better 
not  be  planted. 

The  root-knot  of  the  southern  states  and  of  greenhouses 
is  a  wholly  different  trouble,  and  is  the  work  of  a  nematode 
worm.  There  is  also  a  root-swelling  or  gall  on  raspberries, 
due  to  the  work  of  an  insect.  The  nematode  galls  are 
commonly  smaller  and  softer  swellings,  and  occur  on  the 
younger  or  smaller  roots,  and  appear  not  to  be  found  in 
the  open  in  regions  where  the  ground  freezes  deep. 

WINTER-KILLING 

There  are  two  distinct  types  of  injuries  to  fruit-plants 
by  cold, — true  winter-killing  (or  the  injury  of  the  tree  or 
buds  when  perfectly  dormant,  by  the  low  temperature  of 
winter),  and  the  killing  of  the  growing  or  swelling 
parts  by  the  "cold  snaps"  or  frosts  of  late  spring  and 
early  fall. 

Winter-killing  of  the  wood. 

Three  factors  chiefly  appeal  to  the  fruit-grower  in  the 
winter-killing  of  trees, — positive  cold,  very  dry  or  very  wet 
soil,  and  heaving  of  the  land  by  frost.  The  subject  of  "dry 
freezing"  has  already  been  mentioned  in  Chapter  I  as  a 
danger  in  the  mid-continental  country.  The  heaving  of 
the  land  is  prevented  by  drainage,  by  proper  methods  of 
tillage,  and  by  the  judicious  use  of  cover-crops.  The 


300 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


degree  of  cold  may  be  somewhat  averted,  as  we  have 
already  found,  by  exercising  judgment  in  the  selection  of 
site  and  exposure,  and  by  the  careful  employment  of 
windbreaks;  and  the  danger  of  winter-killing  is  much 
enhanced  when  the  plants  make  a  late  autumn  growth  and 
go  into  the  winter  with  immature  wood.  Yet,  winter- 
killing must  always  be  one  of  the  gravest  risks  of  the 
fruit-grower. 

Winter-injury  to  the  trees  or  plants  usually  appears 
hi  the  form  of  splits  or  long  checks  in  the  trunks,  or  in 
the  outright  death  of  the  ends  of  the  branches  or  even  of 
the  entire  plant,  or  in  discoloration  of  the  wood.  For 
the  splits  lengthwise  the  trunk,  the  proper 
treatment  is  to  pare  off  the  dead  and 
loosened  bark  to  the  "quick"  as  soon  as  the 
bark  begins  to  spread,  and  to  cover  the 
surface  of  the  wound  (and  the  cleft)  with 
bordeaux  mixture  or  paint  or  gas-tar. 

The  proper   treatment  for  frozen-back 
trees  must  be  determined  for  each  particular 
case;  but  the  injured  part  is  no  longer  of 
any  use  to  the  plant,  while  it  may  be  a 
positive     detriment    by    accelerating    the 
evaporation  of  moisture.    The  best  treat- 
ment for  plants   seriously  injured  at  the 
extremities  is  to  cut  them  back  to  fresh 
wood.     This  heading-in — sometimes 
to  the  extent  of  3  or  4  feet — removes 
the   driest   and  weakest   parts,  and 
concentrates  the  energy  of  the  tree 
into  a  comparatively  small  area  of 
FIG.  IDS.  The  new  wood   top.    Heavy  pruning   always   tends 

formed  around  the  core  of  a  TJ.I  i       A  •  £  A        *A 

winter-injured  stem.  toward  the  production  of  wood,  and 


Treating  Winter  Injuries 


301 


this  wood-production  is  probably  never  more  needed  than 
in  winter-injured  trees,  for  it  tends  to  renew  the  vitality 
of  the  tree. 

Often  the  winter-injury  does  not  appear  at  once  on 
the  surface,  but  the  wood  and  interior  bark  are  discolored, 
often  so  much  so  as 
to  lead  the  observer 
to  think  that  the 
tree  is  dead.  But 
such  trees  may 
fully  recover.  Very 
much  depends  on 
the  subsequent 
treatment  of  the 
trees.  Fig.  108 
shows  the  body  of 
a  young  plum  tree 
(in  longitudinal  and 
cross-wise  sections) 
that  was  frozen 
black  in  a  severe 
winter.  It  was  heavily  pruned  the  following  spring  and 
in  the  fall  had  made  a  ring  of  bright  new  wood,  amply 
sufficient  to  maintain  the  tree  in  perfect  health  for  a  long 
life.  This  appearance  is  common  in  nursery  stock  the 
year  following  a  very  hard  winter,  but  such  trees  may  not 
be  permanently  injured.  They  are  to  be  pruned  mode- 
rately, and  if  they  are  young  and  have  much  reserve 
vitality,  they  may  be  headed-back  heavily.  Sometimes 
heavy  heading-back  does  more  harm  than  good.  These 
are  cases  in  which  the  entire  tree  is  old  or  otherwise  weak, 
and  when  the  plant  seems  to  need  the  stimulus  of  all  its 
buds  to  bring  out  the  feeble  life  still  left  to  it.  Fig.  109 


Fio.,109.  Recuperation  of  a  winter-injured  tree, 
moderately  pruned  in  April. 


302  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

(after  Hedrick)  shows  good  results  from  moderate  pruning. 
It  is  probable  that  a  large  number  of  reported  instances 
of  death  due  to  heavy  pruning  of  winter-injured  trees  are 
of  such  trees  as  would  have  died  or  not  fully  recovered 
under  any  treatment. 

Winter-killed  plants  often  retain  sufficient  vitality  to 
leaf  out  or  to  bloom,  and  sometimes  even  to  begin  growth, 
but  when  the  stored  vitality  of  the  tissues  is  exhausted 
the  plant  perishes.  This  explains  the  phenomenon  which, 
after  a  bad  winter,  nearly  always  puzzles  the  inobservant 
fruit-grower,  of  trees  starting  into  feeble  growth  and  then 
suddenly  dying  when  warm  and  dry  weather  approaches. 
Winter-injured  trees  should  not  be  allowed  to  bloom  or  to 
bear  until  they  are  fully  recovered.  Such  trees  are  very 
liable  to  attack  by  the  flat-headed  borer,  pine-hole  borer 
and  other  things. 

The  physiological  character  of  winter-injury  is  obscure, 
but  it  is  probably  in  the  nature  of  desiccation  or  the  with- 
drawal of  moisture  from  the  cells.  The  greater  the  quan- 
tity of  moisture  in  the  tissue,  the  greater  will  be  its  loss 
under  conditions  of  cold  and  the  greater  the  injury;  and 
this  is  probably  the  reason  why  a  late  growth  of  twig  is 
likely  to  be  so  disastrous  if  the  winter  is  severe.  There  is 
much  that  the  grower  can  do  to  prevent  winter-killing,  as 
well  stated  by  Reddick:  "It  is  certainly  advisable  to 
recommend  (1)  that  orchards  be  plowed  early  in  the 
spring  (not  in  June  as  is  frequently  the  case)  and  receive 
thorough  cultivation  early  in  the  season,  in  order  to  give 
the  trees  every  advantage  of  conserved  moisture.  (2) 
That  cultivation  cease  not  later  than  August  1,  in  order 
to  start  the  trees  into  maturation.  (3)  That  a  cover- 
crop,  or  robber-crop,  be  planted  to  take  care  of  excess 
moisture  in  the  autumn,  Such  a  crop  would  seem  to 


Character  of  Winter-Killing  303 

be  particularly  essential  following  an  unusually  dry  sum- 
mer. (4)  That  low,  wet  places  be  tile-drained,  and  air- 
drained  if  such  a  thing  is  possible." 

It  should  be  added  that  the  trees  are  less  liable  to 
injury  if  they  go  into  the  winter  strong  and  undepleted. 
Plants  weakened  by  drought,  lack  of  tillage,  over-bearing, 
borers,  San  Jose  scale  and  diseases,  are  specially  liable  to 
winter-injury. 

The  recent  careful  studies  of  Chandler,  "The  Killing  of 
Plant  Tissues  by  Low  Temperature"  (Mo.  Research  Bull. 
No.  8),  have  thrown  much  light  on  winter-killing.  "There 
are  several  forms  of  injury  from  cold,"  he  states,  "some  of 
them  purely  mechanical,  such  as  tearing  of  tissue  due  to 
tension  developed  at  low  temperature,  or  evaporation 
from  the  surface  when  the  conducting  tissue  is  frozen  so 
as  to  prevent  the  movement  of  water  to  that  tissue,  and 
killing  as  a  result  of  long  -  continued  exposure  to  low 
temperature. 

"With  all  plant-tissues,  when  a  certain  temperature  is 
reached  very  shortly  after  thawing,  it  will  be  found  that 
the  tissue  has  taken  on  a  brown,  water-soaked  appearance, 
and  evaporation  from  that  tissue  is  much  more  rapid  than 
from  living  tissue.  These  are  characteristics  of  plant- 
tissue  frozen  to  death. 

"Results  of  many  investigations  have  shown  that 
during  freezing  (which  may  or  may  not  result  in  freezing 
to  death),  ice  forms  in  the  tissue,  generally  not  in  the 
cells  but  in  the  intercellular  spaces,  the  water  moving  out 
of  the  cells  to  form  crystals  in  these  spaces.  The  most 
commonly  accepted  theory  is  that  killing  from  cold  results 
from  the  withdrawal  of  water  from  the  protoplasm.  The 
amount  of  water-loss  necessary  to  result  in  death  varies 
with  the  different  plants  and  different  tissues." 


304  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

As  to  treatment,  he  remarks:  "The  killing  of  wood  of 
peach  trees  from  freezing  is  one  of  the  most  important 
determining  factors  in  peach-growing.  Little  can  be  done 
to  influence  the  amount  of  killing  except  to  have  the  trees 
start  into  winter  in  proper  condition  of  maturity.  The 
weakest-growing  trees,  however,  do  not  generally  reach 
this  condition  of  maturity  in  the  most  satisfactory  manner. 
Trees  one  or  two  years  in  the  orchard,  or  old  weak  trees, 
are  most  liable  to  succumb  to  effects  of  low  temperature. 
Pruning  the  trees  severely  following  a  winter  when  the 
wood  has  been  killed,  although  apparently  in  the  best 
condition  of  maturity,  seems  to  reduce  the  amount  of 
killing.  However,  such  pruning  following  winters  when 
the  wood  has  been  killed  on  account  of  its  not  having 
reached  the  proper  condition  of  maturity  in  the  fall, 
generally  due  to  the  presence  of  wet  weather  following  a 
drought  the  season  before,  is  liable  to  result  in  greater 
loss  than  if  no  pruning  were  done. 

"In  the  peach-growing  district  of  south  Missouri  and 
Arkansas,  and  probably  other  similar  climates,  the  most 
important  factor  influencing  the  loss  of  peaches  from  low 
temperatures  in  winter  is  keeping  the  buds  from  starting 
into  growth  during  warm  periods  in  winter.  In  that 
section  the  best  means  of  accomplishing  this  end  is  pro- 
longing the  growth  of  the  trees  in  autumn,  either  by 
heavy  pruning  or  by  fertilizing  with  nitrogen  the  spring 
before.  Some  varieties  of  peaches  have  a  much  longer  rest- 
period  than  other  varieties,  and  therefore  are  started  into 
growth  more  slowly  by  warm  periods  in  winter."  (Page  101.) 

Frost  cankers. 

The  effect  of  winter  injury  may  appear  in  the  form  of 
sunken  dead  patches  that  sometimes  exude  gum.  On 


Cankers  Due  to  Frost  305 

peaches,  frost  cankers,  according  to  Jehle,  "are  oftenest 
found  on  the  main  trunk  of  the  tree,  usually  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  or  at  the  snow  line  of  the  previous 
winter;  in  the  crotches  of  the  larger  branches;  or  about 
pruned  stubs.  They  appear  after  a  hard  winter,  particu- 
larly one  of  extreme  changes  in  temperature  and  more 
particularly  when  such  a  winter  follows  a  very  late  grow- 
ing season.  The  cankers  appear  in  the  spring  as  slight 
depressions.  These  are  made  more  apparent  as  the  tree 
puts  on  new  growth  of  wood  over  the  area  not  affected. 
Gum  pockets  usually  form  under  the  flattened  areas  and 
the  gum  often  oozes  out  during  periods  of  wet  weather. 
The  injured  area  is  usually  rather  indefinite  about  the 
margin,  and  the  formation  of  a  healthy  roll  of  callus  is 
thereby  much  retarded.  Fermentation  of  the  dead  tissue 
occurs  and  various  fungi  and  insects  quickly  follow.  One 
fungus,  Valsa  leucostoma,  comes  in  so  commonly  that  some- 
times it  has  been  regarded  as  the  cause  of  the  trouble." 

As  to  prevention:  "It  is  impossible  to  predict  the  char- 
acter of  the  winters,  but  one  can  judge  by  the  growth  and 
maturation  of  the  wood  what  the  probabilities  are  that  a 
tree  is  in  good  condition  to  withstand  a  severe  winter. 
Soft,  poorly  matured  wood  is  easily  injured.  The  use  of 
highly  nitrogenous  fertilizers,  particularly  their  use  too 
late  in  the  season,  is  to  be  avoided.  In  seasons  of  drought 
followed  by  abundant  autumn  rains  a  second  growth  is 
not  uncommon.  This  may  be  prevented  or  held  to  a  suita- 
ble minimum  by  the  use  of  cover-crops." 

The  treatment  for  frost  cankers  is  the  same  as  that  for 
other  similar  wounds,  as  advised  on  a  preceding  page 
(page  296).  It  is  difficult  for  the  grower  in  some  cases  to 
distinguish  between  frost  cankers  and  those  produced  by 
infection,  and  the  subject  also  requires  further  investigation. 


306 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing . 


Winter-killing  of  the  fruit-buds. 

In  severe  winters,  the  entire  fruit-spur  (in  the  spur- 
fruits,  as  apples,  pears,  plums  and  apricots)  may  be  killed 
outright,  but  the  commoner  case  is  the  death  of  the  bud 
only.  The  bud  may  be  entirely 
killed,  in  which  case  it  soon  turns 
brown  throughout  its  entire  diam- 
eter and  the  flower  never  opens; 
or  only  the  pistil  (the  central  organ, 
that  ripens  into  the  fruit)  may  be 
killed,  in  which  case  the  flower  may 
open  and  appear  to  be  perfectly 
normal  to  the  uncritical  observer. 
The  latter  case  is  common  in  peaches 
and  apricots.  Fig.  110  illustrates 
the  condition.  The  flower  at  the  right  was  uninjured  by 
the  winter,  and  the  pistil  is  seen,  grown  full  length,  at  1. 
In  the  other  flower,  the  pistil,  at  2,  is  dead.  We  know 


FIG.  110.  Normal  apricot 
flower  (at  1),  and  one  (at  2) 
injured  by  cold  of  winter. 


FIG.  111.  Live  and 
killed  pistils. 


FIG.  112.  Peach  buds  in  section,  to 
show  the  pistil  (in  the  center)  and  the 
stamens.  Enlarged. 


that  this  pistil  was  killed  before  the  bud  began  to  swell, 
because  it  retains  about  the  size  it  must  have  had  in  the 
dormant  bud.  If  it  had  been  killed  after  the  bud  had 
swollen,  it  would  have  appeared  as  a  much  larger  and  a 
more  or  less  crumpled  or  withered  organ,  as  in  b,  Fig.  111. 


Winter-Killing  of  Buds  307 

Fig.  112  shows  the  structure  of  the  peach-bud  (after 
Halsted) ;  at  a  is  shown  a  longitudinal  section  (enlarged) 
in  winter,  the  pistil,  or  fruit-bearing  organ,  being  in  the 
center;  at  b  is  shown  a  section  of  a  partially  opened  bud. 

A  true  fruit-bud  is  one  in  which  the  flower,  or  cluster 
of  flowers,  is  present  in  miniature.  This  flower  occupies 
the  very  center  of  the  bud,  and  is  surrounded  by  dense 
layers  of  scales.  A  healthy  bud  is  normally  green  in  the 
central  part  in  cross-section.  When  the  bud  has  been 
killed  by  the  winter,  in  the 
usual  way,  this  central  part 
of  the  flower  becomes  promi- 
nently discolored  or  almost 
black.  Fig.  113  shows  afresh 
or  live  bud  at  a,  and  a  killed 

a  b  c 

bud  at  b  and  c.   When  only     FIG.  us.  Apricot^buds:  a,  alive.  6 

,1          •    JM   •      i  MI     i  •        i         and  c,  killed  by  winter.  Enlarged. 

the  pistil  is  killed,  untrained 

eyes  may  not  detect  the  injury.  The  general  run  of 
examinations  made  of  buds  by  farmers,  to  determine 
whether  there  is  winter-injury,  are  of  little  consequence. 
Except  in  pronounced  cases,  the  only  reliable  examination 
is  made  under  a  dissecting  microscope. 

There  are  no  remedies  for  winter-injured  buds. 


INJURY  BY  FROSTS  IN  THE  GROWING  SEASON 

Much  mischief  is  done  by  "cold  snaps"  after  the  buds 
have  begun  to  swell,  and  yet  the  disaster  is  not  so  easily 
wrought, — at  least  not  in  the  North, — as  is  commonly 
supposed.  Even  the  buds  of  the  tenderer  fruits  may 
endure  very  sharp  freezes  after  they  have  begun  to  show 
color.  Observations  were  made  at  Cornell  on  buds  of 
apricots,  peaches,  plums  and  pears  (as  shown  in  Fig. 


308  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

114)  that  had  swollen  to  three  or  four  times  their 
normal  size.  The  pink  color  of  the  apricot  buds  was 
distinctly  visible,  and  the  tips  of  the  anthers  could  be 
seen  in  the  Japan  plums  by  looking  down  squarely  on 
the  buds.  In  this  condition,  the  buds  endured  with  no 


FIG.  114.  Swollen  buds  that  withstood  14°  of  frost:  a,  apricot; 
b,  peach;  c,  Japan  plum;  d,  pear. 

injury  the  following  temperatures,  as  taken  by  self- 
registering  thermometers  hung  in  the  trees  (very  light 
snow  on  the  ground  and  a  wind  blowing  all  night) : 

Lowest  temperature 

April  20,  Apricot,  peach,  Japan  plum,  pear 18° 

April  21,  Apricot,  peach,  pear 19° 

April  21,  Japan  plum 18° 

These  buds  endured  14°  of  frost  without  injury.  On 
the  coldest  morning,  the  buds  were  stiff  from  freezing,  and 
in  some  instances  the  backs  and  tips  of  some  of  the  petals 


Frost-Killing  of  Bulbs 


309 


FIG.  115.  A  strawberry 
nubbin,  due  to  frost. 


were  permanently  discolored.  The  buds  swelled  with  the 
freezing,  but  returned  to  their  previous  size  when  thawed 
out,  and  they  looked  as  if  withered  for  several  days, — or 
until  active  expansion  began. 

When  the  flowers  have  fully  expanded,  a  comparatively 
light  frost  will  destroy  them.  This  is  shown  in  the  fact 
that  a  very  slight  elevation  in  a  black- 
berry or  strawberry  patch  is  often  suffi- 
cient to  avert  injury.  The  pistils  seem 
to  suffer  first.  A  strawberry  nubbin  is 
shown  in  Fig.  115.  The  top  of  the 
berry  (or  the  bottom,  as  it  hangs)  is 
flattened  and  deformed.  This  is  usually  due  to  the  freezing 
of  the  upper  pistils  in  the  flower,  as  it  stood  erect.  Nubbins 
are  sometimes  the  result  of  imperfect  pollination,  but  in 
such  cases  the  deformity  is  more  likely  to  be  on  the  sides 
than  on  the  top,  for  the  top  pistils  are  the  ones  that  are 
very  likely  to  be  pollinated  by  insects. 

A  similar  case  is  reported  on  blackberries  at  Cornell. 
The  only  serious  accident  known  to  injure  the  blackberry 
crop  in  New  York  (aside  from  hail)  is  frost;  and  in  most 
cases  the  injury  is  unavoidable,  even 
though  the  grower  has  warning  of 
its  approach.  In  six  crops  grown 
in  a  certain  patch,  only  one  was 
injured  by  frost,  and  even  this  one, 
when  the  cold  wave  was  unusually 
late  and  severe,  suffered  seriously 
only  in  the  lowest  places.  Drawings 
of  blackberry  flowers  were  made  on 
the  spot,  two  or  three  days  after  the 
frost,  and  they  are  here  reproduced, 

y      .          -    *  .     .  i     Fia.  116.  Normal  blackberry 

natural  size.    A  normal,  uninjured  flower;  fuii  size. 


310 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


flower  is  shown  in  Fig.  116.  Inside  the  five  white  petals 
are  seen  the  numerous  sprawling  stamens,  each  one  bear- 
ing an  enlargement  or  anther  on  the 
end,  inside  which  the  pollen  is  borne. 
In  the  center  of  the  flower  is  the  head 
or  cluster  of  pistils,  each  of  which 
ripens  into  one  of  the  little  grains 
that  go  to  make  up  the  blackberry. 
The  frost  killed  these  pistils,  so  that 
the  center  of  the  flower  bore  only  a 
small,  black,  dead  column  (see  Fig. 
117)-  Now  and  then>  one  or  more  of 

berry  part  wanting.  tnege  pistilg  m  the  head  escaped)  and 

developed  into  a  fruit-grain,  so  that  the  berry  became  a 
nubbin.  Fig.  118  shows  the  dead  and  aborted  fruits  at 
picking  time.  At  the  top  of  the  picture  are  some  fruits 
(n,  n,)  in  which  one  or  two 
grains  or  drupes  are  full 
grown,  when  the  remainder 
of  the  drupelets  making  the 
berry  failed  to  develop. 

On  the  8th  of  one  May,  a 
temperature  of  27°  (5°  of  frost)  was 
recorded  by  self-registering  ther- 
mometers hung  in  fruit-trees  at 
Cornell,  but  no  injury  resulted. 
At  this  time,  all  the  petals  had 
dropped  from  apricot  flowers,  but 
the  calyx-ring  had  not  yet  fallen 
from  the  young  fruits;  peach  flow- 
ers were  in  full  bloom,  but  their 
fertilization  had  mostly  taken 
place;  Japan  plum  flowers  were  just 


FIG.  118. 
Blackberry  fruits 
ruined  by  frost. 


Frost-Marked  Fruits  311 

dropping;   pear   flowers   were   open,   but   not   yet   fully 
fertilized. 

Young  fruits  of  apples  and  pears  may  sometimes  re- 
cover from  a  severe  freeze  and  make  perfect  specimens. 
It  is  even  insisted  by  some  careful  observers  that  they 
sometimes  recover  even  if  frozen  solid  shortly  after  they 


FIG.  119.  Frost  injuries  on  young  apples. 

they  are  "set,"  the  fruits  failing  to  develop  perfect  seeds 
thereafter.* 

Fruits  simply  frost-bitten, — that  is,  injured  by  a 
deposit  of  white  frost, — are  very  likely  to  persist,  but 
to  show  blemishes  or  deformities  even  at  maturity. 
A  common  effect  of  very  late  frosts  is  a  distinct  russet 
zone  on  the  fruit.  This  zone  marks  the  position  of  the 
frost  on  the  young  fruit.  Apples  and  pears  are  usually 
still  erect  when  these  frosts  occur,  and  the  dew, — which, 

*"The  freeze  of  May,  1895,  froze  the  fruit  solid.  The  center  of  each 
pear  turned  black,  and  yet  they  persisted  in  growing.  There  were 
eighty  barrels.  I  doubt  if  there  was  a  seed  or  core  in  the  whole  lot.  The 
quality  was  the  best  that  I  have  ever  seen." — Extract  from  letter  from 
Benj.  F.  Hawes,  Oakfield,  N.  Y. 


312 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


when  frozen,  is  frost, — probably  settles  in  a  ring  or  belt 
near  the  top  of  the  fruit  or  midway  down  it.  The  exact 
position  and  conformation  of  this  deposit  of  dew  are,  of 

course,  determined 
by  the  shape,  posi- 
tion and  exposure 
of  the  fruit.  Fig.  119 
shows  the  frost- 
zones  on  young 
apples.  This  in- 
jured, corky  tissue 
has  the  power  of 
increasing  itself  by 
the  extension  of  the 
abnormal  cells,  so 
that  the  zone  is 
likely  to  widen  with 
the  growth  of  the 

FIG.  120.  Rusty  frost-zone  on  a  full-grown  apple.        fruit          TVT  fl  t 

fruits,  with  the  rusty  frost  marks  still  conspicuous,  are 
seen  in  Figs.  120  and  121.  In  some  cases,  the  growth  of 
tissue  in  the  injured  zone  seems  to  be  slow,  resulting  in  a 
constriction  of  the  fruit  at  that  point. 

Among  the  most  serious  results  of  very  late  frosts  in 
the  North  are  injuries  to  vineyards.  Fig.  122  shows  the 
shoots  of  a  grape-vine  as  injured  by  a  freeze  in  the  middle 
of  May.  In  treating  frozen  vines,  like  that  shown  in  the 
illustration,  it  must  first  be  remembered  that  the  injured 
parts  are  of  no  further  use  to  the  plants,  and  they  are  very 
likely  to  weaken  the  plant  by  causing  it  to  lose  much  of  its 
moisture.  The  rational  procedure,  therefore,  is  to  strip 
off  all  the  frozen  shoots  soon  after  the  disaster,  allowing 
the  energies  of  the  plant  to  divert  themselves  to  the  pro- 


Late  Frost  Injuries 


313 


duction  of  new  shoots.  When  the  injured  parts  are  soft 
and  small,  it  is  customary  to  remove  them  by  pulling 
them  off,  rather  than  by  cutting  them  off.  In  well-pruned 
vineyards  the  cost  of  stripping  ought  not  to  exceed  $1 
an  acre. 

Early  autumn  freezing  is  one  of  the  most  damaging  of 
all  forms  of  frost-injury,  because  the  plant  has  no  time  in 
which  to  recuperate,  and  a  hard  winter  may  add  to  the 
destruction.  Fortunately,  such  freezes  before  the  foliage 
falls  are  very  infrequent.  Probably  little  can  be  done 
except  to  await  the  condition  as  it 
presents  itself  in  very  early  spring. 

It  is  not  often  that  special  treat- 
ment needs  to  be  given   to  plants 
injured  by  late  frosts;   but  the  re- 
moval of  the  killed 
parts,  or  sometimes 
even  a  further  head- 
ing-back,    is    the 
rational     procedure. 
This  should  be  sup- 
plemented  by  good 
tillage  and  other 
care. 

What  is  an  injurious 
degree  of  cold  ? 

To  this  question 
there  is  no  specific 
answer,  because  so 
much  depends  on  the 
latitude,  the  time  of 

,      , ,  FIG.  121.  Frost-blotch  on  a  Flemish 

year   and   the    con-  Beauty  pear. 


314 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


dition  of  the  plants.  We  have  already  seen,  (page  308) 
that  at  Ithaca,  New  York,  fruits  were  able  to  endure 
the  temperature  at  18°,  even  when  the  buds  were  well 
swollen.  Hammon  gives  the  following  figures  at  which 
plants  are  liable  to  injury  from  frosts,  compiled  from 
information  received  from  horticulturists  throughout  the 
entire  Pacific  coast.  Probably  some  of  them  are  too  high. 
The  temperatures  are  as  nearly  as  possible  those  in  con- 
tact with  the  plant  itself: 


Plants  or  fruits 

In  blossom. 
Degrees 

In  setting 
fruit. 
Degrees 

At  other 
times. 
Degrees 

Almonds 

30 

30 

28 

Apples 

29 

30 

26 

Apricots 

31 

32 

30 

Grapes                   .    . 

31 

30 

28 

Grapefruit  
Lemons  
Mandarins  and  tangerines  
Olives  

31 
31 
31 
31 

31 
31 
31 
31 

28 
28 
28 
*18-24 

Oranges  (injured  at  2°  higher  if  con- 
tinued four  to  six  hours  ^ 

31 

31 

f26-29 

Peaches 

30 

30 

29 

Pears                 .                    .              

29 

29 

28 

Peas    

30 

30 

25 

Plums  

31 

31 

29 

Prunes  

31 

31 

29 

Strawberries  
Walnuts,  English  

28 
31 

28 
31 

30 

28 

*18  ripe,  24  green.         f26  ripe,  29  green. 

Howard  (Circ.  No.  35,  Mo.  Exp.  Sta.)  gives  the  follow- 
ing temperatures  injurious  to  peaches:  "Fully  dormant 
peach  buds  can  stand  8°  or  9°  below  zero.  When  they  are 
appreciably  swollen,  zero  is  the  danger-point.  When  the 
buds  are  showing  pink  they  can  stand  15°  above  zero. 
When  the  buds  are  almost  open,  25°  is  the  danger-point. 


What  are  Killing  Frosts? 


315 


When  they  are  newly  opened,  about  26°  would  be  the  point 
of  danger.  When  the  petals  are  beginning  to  fall,  28° 
above  zero  is  cold  enough  to  cause  uneasiness.  When  the 
petals  are  off,  they  can  stand  30°  above  zero.  When  the 
shucks  (calyx  -  tubes)  are 
beginning  to  fall  off,  32° 
above  zero  is  the  danger- 
point.  The  above  figures 
will  serve  as  a  guide  to  the 
fruit-grower  as  showing 
the  proper  time  to  light 
the  fires  in  the  orchard." 

Chandler  finds  that 
"The  killing  temperature 
of  peach  blossoms,  when 
the  tree  is  just  coming 
into  full  bloom,  under 
Missouri  conditions,  seems 
to  vary  from  about  22°F. 
to  25°  or  26°F.  After  the 
blossoms  are  old  enough 
that  they  are  probably 
pollinated,  and  from  that  time  on  until  the  peaches  are 
as  large  as  J^  inch  in  diameter,  at  least,  they  continue  to 
become  more  tender  until  they  will  withstand  but  very 
few  degrees  below  the  freezing-point,  the  seeds  of  young 
peaches  killing  at  a  higher  temperature  than  other  peach 
tissue." 

In  New  Mexico,  Garcia  and  Rigney  secured  somewhat 
different  results  (Bull.  No.  89) : 

"The  data  recorded  at  the  New  Mexico  Station  show  that  the 
fruit-buds,  particularly  those  of  the  peach,  at  their  different  stages 
of  development, — at  least,  in  the  experiment  station  orchard, — 


FiG.  122.  Grape-shoots  killed  by 
a  freeze. 


316  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

are  somewhat  more  resistant  to  cold  than  has  been  reported  by 
observers  from  other  parts  of  the  United  States.  The  data  further 
show  that  the  degree  of  resistibility  to  frost  varies  with  different 
stages  of  growth.  The  peach  is  least  resistant  when  it  is  about  the 
size  of  a  pea,  when  the  calices  are  falling  off.  Contrary  to  the  findings 
of  other  observers,  the  bloom  is  not  the  most  tender  stage  of  growth.  In 
other  words,  the  data  indicate  that  the  newly  set  peach  is  more  deli- 
cate than  the  newly  opened  blossom.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  a 
temperature  of  26°,  lasting  only  a  short  time,  did  little  or  no  in  jury- 
to  the  opening  bud,  newly  opened  blossom  or  newly  set  fruit  of  the 
peach,  native  plum,  pear  and  apple;  while  one-half  a  degree  below 
this,  or  253/6°,  although  lasting  only  a  few  minutes,  killed  a  large 
percentage  of  the  opening  buds,  newly  set  blossoms  and  young 
fruits  of  the  peach,  in  a  number  of  cases.  In  other  words,  26°  was 
the  danger-point  and  any  temperature  below  this  is  liable  to  do 
more  or  less  injury,  depending  on  how  low  it  gets  and  how  long  it 
remains  at  that  temperature.  In  some  cases,  however,  a  temperature 
of  24°,  lasting  only  a  short  time,  left  about  25  per  cent  of  the  blooms 
and  9  per  cent  of  the  newly  set  fruits  uninjured. 

Three  important  factors  that  influence  the  amount  of  damage 
done  by  spring  frosts  are:  The  degree  of  killing  temperature,  the 
time  of  day  at  which  it  occurs,  and  the  length  of  time  the  temperature 
remains  below  the  danger-point.  ...  As  the  young  fruit  develops,  it 
seems  to  get  more  tender,  until  it  grows  beyond  a  certain  size,  when 
it  seems  to  get  hardier  again;  so  that  the  later  frosts  which  come  after 
the  young  fruits  have  made  quite  a  growth  are  liable  to  do  more 
injury  than  the  same  degree  of  cold  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  season, 
when  the  fruits  are  less  developed.  At  this  stage  of  growth,  26^°  to 
27°  would  probably  be  dangerous  to  peaches.  The  very  late  frost 
of  25°  on  May  4,  1912,  killed  practically  all  the  peaches  in  the 
experimental  orchard,  while  24%°  on  April  17,  1910,  left  about 
30  per  cent  of  the  Elbertas. 

"On  the  whole,  apples  and  pears  seem  to  be  more  resistant  than 
peaches  and  plums." 

All  the  studies  of  this  subject  indicate  that  local  con- 
ditions greatly  modify  the  effect  of  cold,  and  probably  no 
generalizations  can  be  made  that  will  warrant  a  grower  in 
withholding  smudging  or  fires  when  the  mercury  indicates 


Injuries  by  Weather  317 

a  temperature  at  or  below  freezing.   See  the  discussion  in 
Chapter  VII  (page  265). 

Harm  may  come  to  fruit-setting  even  though  the  tem- 
perature does  not  touch  the  frost-point.  Hedrick  states 
that  "A  temperature  low  enough  to  be  harmful  to  blossoms 
is  usually  associated  with  frost  or  rain;  but  a  low  tempera- 
ture, even  though  it  does  not  touch  the  frost-point,  nor 
accompany  rain,  is  often  disastrous  to  the  setting  of  fruit. 
The  injurious  effect  is  probably  due  to  the  prevention  of 
the  growth  of  the  pollen-tubes." 

THE  EFFECT   OF  KAIN   ON   THE   SETTING   OF  FRUIT 

It  is  well  known  that  the  weather  conditions  may  pro- 
foundly affect  the  fecundity  of  the  flowers.  In  the  forcing 
of  winter  vegetables,  for  example,  it  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  keep  the  house  dry  and  warm  when  polli- 
nation is  to  be  effected,  and  better  results — both  in  the 
amount  of  pollen  produced,  and  in  the  ease  with  which  it 
is  discharged  from  the  anthers — are  commonly  secured  in 
bright  sunshine.  (See,  also,  page  156.)  It  is  probable  that 
if  the  flowers  of  fruit  plants  were  to  be  kept  constantly 
wet,  very  little  pollination  would  take  place.  It  is  likely 
also,  that  dashing  rains  at  blossoming  time  wash  away 
much  of  the  pollen;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  enough  of 
it  is  lost  in  such  passing  storms  seriously  to  reduce  the 
crop.  The  most  disastrous  storms  are  probably  those 
milder  ones  of  long  duration,  and  which  are  accompanied 
by  a  low  temperature.  Not  only  may  such  weather  tend 
to  prevent  the  discharge  of  pollen,  but  it  prohibits  the 
work  of  insects. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  the  above  remarks  are 
largely  inferences  or  results  of  general  experience.  We 


318  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

have  little  exact  knowledge  as  to  the  effect  of  rain- 
storms and  other  weather  conditions  on  the  setting  of 
fruit.  See  the  discussion  of  this  subject  in  Chapter  II 
(page  41).  Hedrick  thinks  it  "is  probable  that  the  chill 
of  rainy  weather  decreases  the  vitality  of  the  pollen,  and 
an  excess  of  moisture  often  causes  pollen-grains  to  swell 
and  burst." 

Many  of  the  injuries  detailed  in  this  chapter  are 
beyond  the  reach  or  rescue  of  the  fruit-grower,  but,  even 
so,  he  will  want  to  understand  them. 


CHAPTER  IX 
THE  SPRAYING  OF  FRUIT-PLANTATIONS 

IN  1886,  the  present  author  'wrote  in  a  book  that 
"A  remedy  proposed  of  late  is  to  syringe  the  trees  with 
a  mixture  of  paris  green  and  water,  very  early  in  the 
season,  while  the  young  apples  stand  erect.  The  poison 
lodges  in  the  'blossom  end'  and  destroys  the  first  brood 
of  worms.  Later,  when  the  apples  turn  downward,  the 
poison  is  washed  out  by  the  rains.  This  remedy  was 
proposed,  and  its  entire  success  demonstrated,  by  Prof. 
A.  J.  Cook,  of  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College.  A 
tablespoonful  of  poison  to  a  gallon  of  water  is  sufficient." 

This  statement  represented  nearly  the  sum  of  knowl- 
edge respecting  the  spraying  of  orchards  at  that  time. 
Ten  years  later,  the  writer  had  part  in  putting  before 
the  public  Lodeman's  "The  Spraying  of  Plants,"  which 
made  a  closely  printed  book  of  some  four  hundred  pages. 
Today,  the  spraying  of  fruit-plantations  is  a  stand- 
ard practice,  conducted  in  a  large  way  with  much  skill, 
and  involving  the  use  of  highly  specialized  equipment. 
These  contrasts  show  how  rapid  has  been  the  develop- 
ment of  the  spraying  of  plants  to  combat  insects  and 
diseases.  Sometimes  its  importance  may  have  been  magni- 
fied out  of  proportion  to  other  essential  operations  of  fruit- 
growing. Spraying  has  been  hailed  as  a  positive  means  of 
making  orchards  fruitful.  In  practice,  however,  it  makes 
orchards  fruitful  only  when  the  cause  of  unfruitfulness  is 
incursions  of  insects  and  fungi.  It  will  not  correct  the 

(319) 


320  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

faults  of  poor  tillage,  nor  of  insufficient  plant-food,  nor  of 
unprofitable  varieties,  nor  of  neglect  in  pruning.  It  is 
only  one  of  the  various  elements  that  enter  into  success- 
ful fruit-growing.  There  is  a  tendency  in  fruit  writings 
to  give  relatively  too  much  space  to  spraying. 

Aside  from  its  direct  and  immediate  importance,  spray- 
ing has  had  a  very  marked  secondary  effect  in  waking  up 
the  horticulturist.  It  has  raised  the  standard  of  intelli- 
gence. Any  movement  that  sets  a  man  to  thinking  very 
strongly  along  one  line  is  likely  to  awaken  his  interest  in 
related  subjects.  So  it  happens  that  spraying  has  been  one 
of  the  means  of  rapidly  diffusing  a  better  knowledge  of 
horticultural  operations.  Some  of  the  ways  in  which  this 
secondary  influence  of  spraying  has  enlarged  the  horti- 
cultural horizon  may  be  stated  as  follows: 

1.  The  necessity  of  spraying  calls  attention  to  the 
reasons  for  the  recent  incursions  of  pests.    Spraying  was 
unknown  in  his  boyhood  days:  why  is  it  so  imperative 
now?    This  opens  a  world  of  suggestion,  and  leads  the 
questioner  to  consider  the  fact  that  insects  and  fungi  are 
constantly  changing  their  habits  from  one  plant  to  another, 
as  the  native  plants  are  destroyed  and  as  the  area  of  culti- 
vated plants  is  increased,  and  that  the  continuing  com- 
merce with  all  parts  of  the  world  constantly  exposes  us  to 
new  dangers.   Pests  that  suddenly  overwhelm  the  planta- 
tion may  have  been  breeding  hi  unobserved  numbers  in 
the  neglected  places  for  many  years.    The  ideals  of  the 
fruit-grower    are    also    higher    now.     Competition    has 
increased,  demands  have  been  refined,  and  the  smallest 
blemish  on  a  fruit  is  enough  to  throw  it  out  of  a  first-class 
article,  whereas  years  ago  it  might  have  passed  with- 
out comment. 

2.  The  necessity  of  spraying  is  forcing  a  new  discern- 


Spraying  as  an  Educator  321 

ment  of  varieties.  Those  persons  who  grow  in  a  large 
way  for  the  general  and  more  or  less  staple  markets  find 
themselves  inquiring  for  those  varieties  that  are  least 
susceptible  to  disease-  and  insect-injury  and  which,  there- 
fore, need  the  smallest  attention  in  the  way  of  protection. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  protection  that  spraying  affords 
tends  to  bring  back  many  of  those  good  old  varieties  that 
have  almost  disappeared  from  cultivation  because  of  dis- 
ease. Those  persons  who  are  growing  special  kinds  of 
fruit  for  particular  or  personal  markets,  or  for  home  use, 
will  choose  the  varieties  of  ideal  qualities  in  spite  of  the 
liability  to  insect  or  fungous  attacks. 

3.  Spraying  demands  closer  study  of  the  companion- 
ships and  inter-relations  of  crops,  fungi  and  insects.   Cer- 
tain pests  follow  the  round  of  certain  crops,  and  when  the 
planter  breaks  such  a  rotation  he  also  lessens  the  liability 
of  attack.    It  also  forces  the  use  of  shorter  rotations,  for 
it  is  a  very  nimble  insect  or  fungus  that  can  keep  pace 
with  a  lively  and  resourceful  farmer.    He  learns  that  the 
best  treatment  of  the  red-rust  on  raspberries  is  a  short 
rotation  rather  than  spraying.    The  best  treatment  with 
many  diseases  may  be  a  combination  of  both;  but  he  will 
find  that  if  he  reduces  the  number  of  crops  to  two  or  at 
most  to  three,  and  then  has  plantations  coming  on  in 
other  places,  he  will  suffer  comparatively  little.  The  same 
suggestion  is  applicable  to  the  cultivation  of  strawberries, 
and  other  short-generation  fruits. 

4.  Spraying  emphasizes  the  importance  of  better  care, 
that  the  crop  may  repay  the  cost  of  the  extra  treatment. 
The  potato  bug  has  no  doubt  exercised  a  very  pronounced 
influence  in  improving  the  cultivation  of  the  potato,  and  it 
is  already  apparent  that  the  San  Jose*  scale  is  increasing 
the  alertness  in  fruit-growing. 

u 


322  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

5.  The  necessity  of  spraying  must  develop  a  greater 
watchfulness  on  the  part  of  the  fruit-grower  for  new 
pests,  for  they  are  all  the  time  appearing  from  foreign 
countries,  from  adjacent  states  or  geographical  regions,  or 
from  the  wild. 

6.  Inasmuch  as  every  new  necessity  or  new  subject  of 
inquiry  awakens  new  thoughts  and  expands  the  person's 
relationships,  so  it  becomes  a  means  of  enlarging  and 
educating  the  man.   A  concentrated  invasion  of  the  army- 
worm  is  one  of  the  very  best  means  of  waking  up  any 
farming  community  and  of  setting  every  man,  woman 
and  child  to  asking  questions  of  every  passer-by,  every 
agricultural  editor  and  teacher,  and  experiment  station. 
The  good  effects  of  such  an  invasion  are  likely  to  last  for 
a  number  of  years.    It  is  surprising,  as  one  thinks  of  it, 
how  easily  people  are  scared  by  a  bug!   A  strange  insect, 
which  perhaps  does  not  weigh  a  grain,  will  set  a  whole 
community  of  able-bodied  men  agog,   and  may  cause 
as  much  downright  fear  and  discussion  as  a  political 
revolution. 

The  kinds  of  difficulties. 

There  are  three  general  types  of  difficulties  or  dis- 
orders within  the  view  of  the  discussion  hi  this  chapter: 
1.  Attacks  by  insects. 

(a)  The  injuries  of  those  insects  that  eat  or 
chew  the  parts  of  the  plant,  and  which,  therefore, 
are  killed  by  the  application  of  arsenical  and 
similar  poisons.  Such  insects  are  the  whole  tribe 
of  caterpillars,  worms  and  beetles. 

(6)  Attacks  of  insects  that  suck  their  food, 
and  which,  therefore,  are  destroyed  by  caustic 
applications  that  injure  their  bodies.  All  the 


The  Kinds  of  Diseases  323 

tribes  of  plant-lice  and  scale  insects  belong  here, 
and  for  these  the  kerosene  emulsion,  lime-sulfur 
washes  and  the  like,  are  the  specifics. 

2.  Parasitic  fungous  diseases,  such  as  the  apple-scab, 

black-rot  and  mildew  of  the  grape,  fruit-rot  of  the 
peach,  leaf -blight  of  the  plum  and  pear,  black-knot 
of  the  plum.  These  diseases  are  characterized  by 
definite  spots,  discolorations  or  excrescences 
more  or  less  scattered  over  the  surface  of  the 
leaf,  fruit  or  branch.  As  a  rule,  the  attacked  leaves 
and  fruits  have  a  tendency  to  drop  from  the 
tree.  The  general  treatment  for  these  diseases 
is  to  spray  with  some  fungicidal  mixture,  as 
lime-sulfur  or  bordeaux  mixture.  The  treatment 
is  useful  in  proportion  as  it  is  applied  early  and 
thoroughly.  After  the  fungus  once  gets  into  the 
tissues  of  the  host-plant,  it  is  difficult,  if  not 
impossible,  to  kill  it.  If,  however,  the  fungicide 
is  on  the  plant  before  the  fungus  is,  the  parasite 
may  not  be  able  to  gain  a  foothold.  Even  after 
it  does  secure  a  foothold,  however,  the  spray  may 
check  its  spread  by  preventing  the  development 
of  its  external  parts  and  the  formation  of  spores. 

3.  The  physiological  and  bacterial  diseases,  or  the 

so-called  constitutional  troubles.  In  these  cases, 
there  are  rarely  any  definite  spots,  as  in  the 
attacks  of  parasitic  fungi,  but  the  entire  leaf, 
or  even  the  entire  plant,  or  a  large  part  of  it, 
shows  a  general  weakening  and  wilting,  as  if 
there  were  some  cutting-off  of  the  accustomed 
source  of  nourishment.  Such  diseases  are  a 
general  yellowing  and  death  of  the  leaf,  the 
dying  of  the  leaf  along  the  main  veins  and 


324  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

around  the  edges,  showing  that  the  difficulty 
probably  affects  the  entire  leaf  and  not  any  one 
part  of  it.  In  general,  there  is  a  tendency  for 
foliage  in  plants  so  attacked  to  wither  and  hang 
on  the  tree  for  a  time.  The  peach  yellows  and 
pear  blight  are  diseases  of  this  kind.  There  are 
no  specific  treatments  for  these  troubles.  They 
must  be  approached  by  what  physicians  call 
prophylaxis, — that  is,  by  methods  of  sanitation 
and  prevention,  and  by  eradication  of  the  parts. 
The  diseased  plants  or  parts  are  cut  away  and 
burned.  All  conditions  that  seem  to  favor  the 
development  of  the  disease  are  removed.  Varie- 
ties particularly  susceptible  are  discarded.  Care- 
ful management  is  often  much  more  important 
than  any  attempt  at  specific  treatment. 

SPECIFIC  REMARKS  ON  SPRAYING 

1.  Spraying  is  only  one  of  the  requisites  to  success  in 
fruit-raising. — Trees  must  grow  before  they  can  bear, 
and  this  growth  depends  on  food  and  proper  conditions 
of    soil,   more    than    it   does  on  the    accident   of   im- 
munity from  insects  and  fungi.    It  is  one  of  the  cardinal 
operations    for   which    the    grower    must   plan   hi   the 
beginning. 

2.  Spraying  is  insurance. — There  are  many  elements 
of  risk  in  the  growing  of  fruit.    It  is  impossible  to  foretell 
by  any  considerable  length  of  time  whether  any  or  all  of 
the    difficulties    liable    to    harass    the    fruit-raiser    will 
actually  appear.    The  owner  does  not  know  whether  his 
buildings  will  burn,  yet  he  insures  them.  We  know  that,  in 
four  years  out  of  five,  some  damaging  injury  of  insects  or 


Rules  for  Spraying  325 

fungi  may  be  confidently  expected,  and  it  is  the  part  of 
wisdom  to  insure  against  it. 

3.  Spraying  is  of  some  value  every  year,  on  apples , 
pears,  plums,  quinces,  grapes  and  various  other  fruits. — 
Even  in  years  of  great  immunity,   nearly  all  sprayed 
orchards  carry  a  better  foliage  than  those  untreated.    So, 
wholly  aside  from  the  idea  of  insuring  against  risk,  it  is 
advisable  to  spray  for  those  insects  that  are  more  or  less 
abundant  every  year.    Some  insects  and  diseases  appear 
late  in  the  season,  so  that  the  spray  may  be  needed  at 
some  epoch  in  the  season. 

4.  Spray   thoroughly,    or   not   at   all. — Much    of   the 
spraying  is  little  more  than  a  waste  of  time  and  material. 
Squirting  a  few  quarts  of  water  at  a  tree  as  one  hurries 
past  it,  is  not  spraying.   A  tree  is  thoroughly  and  honestly 
sprayed  when  it  is  wet  all  over,  on  all  the  branches  and  on 
both  sides  of  all  the  leaves.    An  insect  or  a  fungus  is  not 
killed  until  the  poison  is  placed  where  the  pest  is.    It  is 
not  frightened.    Bugs  do  not  search  for  the  poison,  in 
order  that  they  may  accommodate  the  orchardist.    The 
one  spot  not  sprayed  may  be  the  very  place  where  a  bud- 
moth  is  established. 

5.  Prepare   in  winter  for  next   year's  work. — Secure 
nozzles  and  pumps,  and  repair  the  tanks  and  wagons.    It 
is  especially  important  that  the  wagons  be  handy,  and 
that  the  equipment  be  large  enough  and  strong  enough  to 
do  the  work  quickly.    A  break-down  in  spraying  time  is 
likely  to  be  a  serious  matter.    Pumps  should  be  cleaned 
inside  and  out,  repacked  if  necessary,  oiled  and  com- 
pletely repaired.    If  power  is  used,  the  engine  should  be 
tested,  and  it  may  need  to  be  overhauled.    All  repair 
parts  and  all  insecticides  and  fungicides  should  be  ordered 
well  in  advance  of  the  spraying  season. 


326  The  Principles  of  Fruiting-gr owing 

6.  The  style  or  "make"  of  pump  and  nozzle  to  be  used 
depends  on  the  particular  kind  of  work  to  be  done. — The 
reader  will  now  see  that  the  advice  as  to  machinery  must 
depend  on  the  specific  purpose  for  which  the  appliances 
are  to  be  used  and  the  extent  of  operations.  Apparatus 
devised  a  few  years  ago  for  the  distribution  of  paris  green 
may  be  of  no  value  for  the  application  of  such  a  thick 
compound  as  the  bordeaux  mixture  or  the  lime-sulfur. 

Whatever  the  outfit  chosen,  the  pump  should  be  strong 
and  powerful,  with  hard  brass  working  parts,  and  capable 
of  throwing  much  liquid  with  great  force.  In  respect  to 
nozzles,  it  may  be  said  that  there  is  no  one  kind  which  is 
best  for  all  purposes.  It  is  desirable  that  the  liquid  should 
reach  the  plant  in  the  form  of  a  very  fine  mist;  but  it  is 
just  as  important  that  the  nozzle  should  have  the  power 
of  throwing  the  liquid  to  the  desired  point.  In  other  words, 
there  are  two  elements  to  be  considered, — the  nozzle  must 
have  carrying  power  and  delivering  power.  A  fine  mist 
at  the  orifice  of  the  nozzle  is  of  no  use  when  the  nozzle  is 
30  feet  short  of  the  bug.  With  many  of  the  modern  devices, 
the  man  who  holds  the  hose  in  spraying  rigs  may  stand 
8  or  9  feet  above  the  ground,  and  he  may  use  a  pole  12 
to  15  feet  in  length,  which  will  elevate  the  nozzle  something 
like  25  feet  from  the  ground;  but  many  apple  trees  are 
50  to  60  feet  high.  It  will  therefore  be  seen  that  the 
liquid  must  carry  itself  25  to  30  feet  beyond  the  nozzle. 
For  such  purposes,  a  nozzle  that  distributes  the  liquid 
in  a  spray  directly  from  its  orifice  is  of  small  use;  it  must 
throw  a  more  or  less  solid  stream,  and  the  stream  should 
break  up  when  it  reaches  its  destination.  Such  nozzles 
require  very  strong  power  behind  them. 

For  the  spraying  of  fruits,  the  various  disc  nozzles  are 
now  most  in  use.  They  are  provided  with  a  chamber  in 


Pumps  and  Nozzles 


327 


which  the  liquid  is  whirled,  and  it  is  then  projected  through 
a  disc  with  openings  of  different  sizes.  The  bordeaux 
nozzle  is  also  used  for  the  codlin-moth  and  some  other 
purposes.  The  spray  liquid  should  penetrate  the  top  of  the 
tree  and  drench  all  the  leaves;  this  requires  not  only  a 
good  nozzle  but  much  force, — more  than  the  usual  hand- 
pump  develops. 

Remarks  similar  to  the  above  may  be  made  for  pumps; 
that  is,  there  is  no  one  best  pump.  We  might  divide  all 
pumps  into  two  general  classes, — those  that  deliver  the 
liquid  by  force  of  gravity,  as  some  of 
the  potato  sprayers,  and  those  that 
deliver  it  by  the  force  of  pressure.  The 
force  of  gravity  is  not 
sufficient  to  do  the  work 
well,  especially  when  bor- 
deaux mixture  is  to  be 
used.  Of  the  pressure 
machines,  there  are  sev- 
eral kinds,  as  those  that 
derive  their  force  from  the 
suction  of  a  piston  and 
valves,  and  those  that  work  from  the  force  of  compressed 
gas  or  air.  Knapsack  pumps  are  very  efficient,  not  only  be- 
cause they  are  powerful  for  their  size,  but  also  because  they 
enable  the  operator  to  stand  very  close  to  his  work;  but 
they  are  not  adapted  to  work  on  trees  nor,  in  fact,  on  large 
areas  in  this  country,  because  labor  is  too  high-priced. 
For  small  areas,  for  experiment  purposes  and  the  like,  they 
are  exceedingly  useful  and  handy.  The  syringe  and  bucket 
pumps  are  very  efficient  for  work  in, a  small  way  in  yards, 
and  especially  when  it  is  desired  to  be  extra  thorough. 

The  force  or  power  to  drive  a  pump  may  be  the  arm 


FIG.  123.  Platform  above  a  tank  outfit. 


328 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


of  the  operator,  the  geared  wagon  wheel,  or  an  engine. 
The  geared  sprayers  may  be  useful  for  small-fruits  and 
grapes,  inasmuch  as  they  work  while  the  team  walks; 
but,  as  a  rule,  they  are  not  adapted  to  large  orchard  trees, 

because  enough  liquid 
cannot  be  thrown 
while  the  machine 
is  passing  a  tree 
thoroughly  to  spray  it. 
In  recent  years,  very 
effective  power  spray- 
ers have  come  into 
use,  mostly  employing 
gasolene  or  com- 
pressed air.  In  plan- 
tations of  four  to  five 
acres  and  more,  the 
power  sprayer  will 
probably  pay,  partic- 
ularly if  the  farm 
grows  other  crops,  as 
potatoes,  that  need 
spraying.  The  engine  may  be  used  at  other  times  to  drive 
a  wood-saw,  dairy  machinery,  silage-cutters,  well-pumps 
and  other  apparatus. 

In  low  orchards,  a  low  truck  may  be  needed,  and  in 
some  cases  a  stone-boat  is  best;  but  most  orchards  will 
need  some  kind  of  high  rig,  to  enable  the  operator  to  reach 
the  tops  of  the  trees.  Fig.  123  is  a  standard  rig  for  hand- 
power  work.  The  tank  holds  300  gallons.  The  pump  is 
placed  on  the  front  of  the  rig  (in  the  seat-rack),  and  one 
man  drives  and  pumps.  The  rig  is  stopped  at  every  tree. 
Two  leads  of  hose  are  used.  Another  good  rig  for  hand 


FIG.  124.  Platform  above  a  barrel  outfit,  now 
becoming  obsolete  for  large  orchards. 


Pumps  and  Rigs 


329 


power  is  shown  in  Fig.  124.  In  Fig.  125  is  shown  a  power 
outfit,  the  machinery  being  covered  for  protection.  Many 
other  efficient  spraying  outfits  are  in  use,  but  these 
three  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  kind  of  work  that  is 
needed.  Until  ten  or  fifteen  years  ago,  the  greater  number 
of  fruit-growers  used  an  ordinary  wagon,  with  box  or 
rack,  and  a  single  fifty-gallon  barrel,  and  this  outfit  may 
still  be  seen;  but  this  is  found  to  be  both  uneconomical 
and  ineffective  for  large  operations. 

The  use  of  long  pieces  of  J^-inch  gas-pipe,  with  the 
nozzle  attached  to  the  end,  is  advisable  when  one  is  work- 
ing in  the  tops  of  the  trees,  but  they  are  likely  to  be  a 
nuisance  if  one  works  from  the  ground.  They  are  awkward 
if  more  than  10  feet 
long.  Growers  usu- 
ally prefer  to  use  a 
bamboo  fishing-pole, 
and  to  secure  the 
hose  near  its  upper 
end,  letting  the  lower 
part  of  the  pole  re- 
main free.  Most 
operators  use  insuffi- 
cient hose.  For  work 
in  old  orchards,  the 
run  should  be  at 
least  15  feet  long. 

For  yards  and 
ornamental  plants,  a 
cart-like  rig,  like  that 
shown  in  Fig  126,  is 
handy  and  efficient. 

A  Vinmp  rrmrlp  rio-  fnr  FlG'  125'  Elevated  platform  above  a  power 

A  IlOIIie-IIldUe  Tig  lor  sprayer,  as  used  on  the  Pacific  coast. 


330 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


spraying  strawberries  and  potatoes  is  seen  in  Fig.  127.   It 
is  a  barrel- pump,  mounted  on  wheels,  with  three  nozzles 

rigged  on  the  tail- 
board, so  as  to  cover 
as  many  rows  of 
plants. 

There    are    dust- 
sprayers  on  the  mar- 
ket,   that   apply  the 
material  in  a  dry  powder 
rather  than  in  water;  but, 
while  they  have  given  satis- 
faction for  particular  pur- 
poses, they  have  not  become 

126.  A  convenient  spraying  equipment       popular    for    Orchard     WOrk. 
for  home  grounds.  5»i    j  r          J        //-« 

Blodgett     found      (Cornell 

Bull.  No.  340,  1914)  that  dust-spraying  needs  to  be 
further  tried  as  a  means  of  controlling  apple  diseases. 
(Fig.  128.)  "The  use  of  finely  ground  sulfur  as  the 
fungicide  in  a  dust  mixture  has  given  very  encouraging 
results,  and  warrants  further  trials  on  a  more  exten- 
sive scale.  The  application  of  arsenate  of  lead  in  powdered 
form  in  the  quantities  applied  is  more  effective  against 
the  common  orchard  insects  that  chew 
than  is  the  same  substance  applied 
wet.  The  time  required  for  dusting 
an  orchard  is  much  less 
than  that  required  for 
spraying  it."  The  cost 
of  controlling  insects  and 
fungi  is  not  lessened. 
Melander  and  Beattie 

,__      .        _     „      -_         .,.._,          FIG.  127.  One-horse  outfit  for  spraying 
(Wash.     Bull.     -NO.    lOb)  strawberries  and  potatoes. 


The  Substances  for  Spraying 


331 


think  that  dust-spraying  does  not  have  sufficient  pene- 
trating power  for  orchard  work. 

7.  The  farmer  should  know  what  he  wants  to  kill  before 
he  begins  to  spray. — It  is  still  common  to  find  a  man  who 
is  going  at  spraying  with  enthusiasm,  but  who  cannot 
explain  a  single  definite  object  in  view.  He  merely  knows, 
on  general  principles,  that  spraying  is  useful.  To  such  a 
man,  spraying  is  spraying, 


whether  he  uses  arsenicals, 
or   bordeaux,  or   both,  or 
neither  one;  and  his  results 
are    about    equal    to    his 
knowledge.     There   is   no 
longer  an  excuse  for  such 
practice,  for  all  the  leading 
insects  and  fungi  have  re- 
ceived   treatment    in    the 
publications  of  the  govern- 
ment and  experiment  sta-  ^^  128-  Dust-sprayer. 
tions.  Of  course,  the  real  fruit-growers  are  well  and  exactly 
informed,  even  to  details;  but  there  are  some  persons  who 
need  to  know  that: 

The  arsenicals  are  used  to  kill  all  larvae  or  worms, 
and  all  those  insects  that  chew  the  leaves  or  shoots, 
such  as  the  codlin-moth,  bud-moth,  canker-worm, 
potato-beetle,  tent-caterpillar,  and  the  like.  Lime- 
sulfur  and  kerosene  emulsion  are  used  for  scale-insects 
and  plant-lice. 

Lime-sulfur  and  bordeaux  mixture  are  used  to 
prevent  the  attacks  of  fungous  parasites,  as  apple-scab, 
leaf-blight  of  the  pear,  quince  and  plum,  potato-blight 
and  such  like. 

The  leading  poisonous  insecticide  is  now  arsenate 


332 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


of  lead,  although  arsenate  of  lime  is  much  used;  the 
leading  fungicide  for  most  fruits  is  lime-sulfur,  and  it 
is  also  a  good  scalecide. 

8.  The  time  to  spray  must  be  determined  for  each  particu- 
lar case. — The  grower  himself  must  decide  when  and  how 
often  to  spray,  because  he  should  know  what  enemies  he 
desires  to  reach.  If  he  has  the  bud-moth,  he  should  spray 
with  the  first  swelling  of  the  buds,  and  if  he  has  the  plum- 
scale  he  should  spray  in  the  winter.  But,  leaving  the 
special  insects  aside,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  for  the  two 
staple  enemies — the  apple-scab  and  the  codlin-moth — at 
least  two  sprayings  should  be  given.  Spraying  when  the 

tree  is  dormant  has  an 
important  effect  in  de- 
stroying the  apple-scab 
fungus.  As  a  general 
statement,  one  may 
spray  apples  and  pears 
two  or  three  times, — 
once  when  dormant, 
with  lime-sulfur;  once 
just  as  the  fruit-buds 
break  but  before  the 
flowers  expand  (Fig. 
129)  with  weak  lime- 
sulfur  and  arsenical,  and  again  just  as  the  last  blossoms 
fall,  with  the  same  combination.  The  first  spraying  is 
for  the  scab  fungus  in  particular.  The  second  spraying 
(which  is  often  omitted)  is  for  the  scab  and  bud-moth. 
The  third  is  particularly  for  the  codlin-moth.  If  scab  is 
very  bad,  other  sprayings  may  be  necessary.  Whether  or 
not  it  is  necessary  to  spray  again  will  depend  largely 
on  the  season.  The  operator  must  watch  matters 


FIG.  129.  Showing  when  apple  trees  are 
ready  for  the  main  spraying. 


When  to  Spray  333 

closely,  and  spray  when  he  needs  to  do  so,  or  when  he  is 
in  doubt.  Two  sprayings  are  sufficient  for  the  codlin- 
moth,  and  three  are  usually  sufficient  for  the  apple-scab. 
These  two  sprayings  constitute  the  insurance  that  has 
been  mentioned;  thereafter,  the  grower  will  be  able  to  see 
more  definitely  what  is  needed.  These  remarks  illustrate 
the  nature  of  the  questions  that  the  fruit-grower  must 
consider. 

9.  Keep  posted. — Every  year,  read  the  new  bulletins, 
note  the  articles  in  the  agricultural  papers,  keep  in  touch 
with  the  discussions  before  societies,  secure  the  publica- 
tions of  manufacturers.  The  practice  in  spraying  is  mov- 
ing rapidly,  and  new  studies  of  insects  and  diseases  are 
constantly  being  made.  The  practices  are  now  well  stan- 
dardized, but  modifications  are  often  made  and  new  pests 
appear.  The  grower  must  be  vigilant. 

LISTS  AND  FORMULAS 

The  marked  departures  in  spraying  in  recent  years 
have  been  not  only  in  the  perfecting  of  the  mechanical 
devices,  but  in  the  character  of  the  spray  materials.  Lon- 
don purple  and  paris  green  are  now  little  used,  and  arsen- 
ate  of  lead  and  arsenate  of  lime  have  taken  their  places. 
Bordeaux  mixture  is  still  the  standard  fungicide  for  plants 
in  a  growing  condition,  although  lime-sulfur  is  now  mostly 
used  for  summer  spraying  of  apples  and  pears,  as  well  as 
for  the  winter  spraying.  On  most  plants,  lime-sulfur 
has  a  serious  dwarfing  effect  on  foliage.  Bordeaux  is  used 
for  grapes,  small-fruits,  potatoes  and  many  other  things. 
Arsenate  of  lead  may  be  combined  with  lime-sulfur  as 
well  as  with  bordeaux. 


334  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

Synopsis  of  the  principal  considerations  in  the  choice  of 
a  power  sprayer  and  nozzles  (Melander  and  Beattie,  Wash. 
Bull.  No.  106): 

1.  General  operation  and  efficiency. 
Capacity. 
Engine — 

Type  of  motor. 

Operating  with  distillate  or  denatured  alcohol. 

Average  horse-power. 

Maximum  brake  horse-power. 

Cubic  feet  of  piston  displacement  per  horse-power  hour. 

Revolutions  per  minute. 

Capacity  of  fuel- tank. 

Cooling  device: 

Efficiency. 

Amount  of  heating. 
Ignition. 
Detachability  from  pump  for  other  uses. 

Pump — 

Belt-  or  gear-drive. 

Number  and  style  of  cylinders. 

Diameter  of  pump  cylinder. 
,  Length  of  stroke. 

Strokes  per  minute. 

Discharge  per  minute  at  250  pounds  pressure. 

Maximum  operating  pressure. 

Capacity  of  air-dome. 
Outfit- 
Tank  capacity. 

Filling  pump:  piston  or  rotary. 

Weight. 

Economy  of  operation. 
Engine — 

Time  lost  due  to  engine. 

Horserpower  hours  per  gallon  of  gasolene  used. 

Gallons  of  gasolene  per  100  gallons  pumped. 

Gallons  of  lubricating  oil  per  100  gallons  pumped. 

Percentage  of  fuel-tank  capacity  used  an  hour  for  operation. 


Points  of  a  Spraying  Outfit  335 

Pump,  etc. — 

Slippage  (rated  capacity  less  actual  delivery). 

Uniformity  of  pressure. 

Efficiency  of  pressure  regulator  in  maintaining  uniform 

pressure  when  hose  is  cut  off  or  is  on. 
Drop  in  pressure  between  pump  and  nozzle. 
Amount  of  overflow  from  pump  to  tank  when  working  at 

normal  capacity. 
Outfit- 
Efficiency  of  agitator. 
Time  required  for  refilling  tank. 
Ratio  of  weight  to  capacity.  . 

Accessibility  and  convenience. 
Accessibilty  of  working  parts — 

Valves:  Ease  of  replacing  valve-seats. 
Drains:  Engine,  pump  and  tank. 

Plunger-cups  or  packing;  repacking  stuffing-boxes  (if  any). 
Screws;  bolts;  oil-cups;  pressure-regulator. 
Method  of  taking  in  slack  between  pump  and  engine. 
Cleaning  strainer  on  suction  hose;  cleaning  tank  of  debris. 
Adaptability  to  field  conditions — 
Cramping  of  wheels  in  turning. 
Radius  of  circle  required  in  turning. 
Possibility  of  miring  in  irrigation  ditches  or  loose  soil. 
Draft. 
Repairs — 

Possibility  of  securing  duplicate  parts. 
Ease  of  making  repairs. 
Construction. 
Engine — 

General  construction: 

Durability;  simplicity  of  design. 
Exposure  of  working  parts: 

Freedom  from  danger  of  breaking  cogs,  cranks,  etc. 
Freedom  from  danger  on  part  of  operator. 
Proportions  of  working  parts;  quality  of  materials; 

workmanship. 
Provision  for  drainage. 
Method  of  feeding  gasolene. 


336  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

Pump — 

General  construction:  as  above. 
Valves:  composition  and  design. 
Cylinder  lining. 
Provision  for  drainage. 
Provision  for  supplying  air  to  air-dome. 
Reliability  of  pressure  gauge. 
Type  of  pressure  regulator. 
Outfit- 
Tank:  Wood  or  metal;  location;  design  suited  to  agitator. 
Trucks:  Steel  or  wood;  rigidity;  strength;  weight. 
Wheels:  Diameter;  width  of  tires;  metal  or  wood. 
Tower: 

Weight;  detachability;  position. 
With  railing  or  straddle. 
Hose— 

Quality;  diameter;  length;  number  of  ply. 

End  couplings  set  in  rubber  and  bound  hi  place,  without 

sharp  projections  to  catch  in  operator's  hands. 
Extension  rods — 

Length;  Bamboo  or  not;  aluminum,  brass  or  iron. 
Character  of  end  ferrules  (whether  they  slip  through  the 

hand  easily,  and  thoroughly  grip  t}ie  core). 
Nozzles — 

Kind;  quality. 
Cut-offs — 

Globe  or  ball  or  quarter-turn. 
Anti-leak;  rapidity  of  action. 
3.  Cost. 

Accessories   supplied:   e.   g.,   filling    pump   and    suction  hose; 

magneto;  hose;  rods;  nozzles;  tools;  crooks;  tower. 
Ratio  of  cost  to  capacity  and  efficiency. 

INSECTICIDES  AND   FUNGICIDES 
(Adapted  from  Crosby  and  Matheson,  and  from  Reddick.) 

Of  poisoning  insecticides,  the  most  widely  used  and 
effective  substance  is  arsenic  in  its  various  forms.  Arsenic 
is  never  used  pure,  but  only  when  chemically  combined 


Arsenicals  337 

with  lead,  lime  or  other  substance  that  produces  a  com- 
pound insoluble  in  water. 

White  arsenic  is  the  cheapest  form  in  which  arsenic  can  be 
obtained.  It  is  a  white  powder,  soluble  in  water,  and  very  injurious 
to  foliage.  A  cheap  and  efficient  insecticide  may  be  prepared  from 
it  as  follows: 

For  use  with  bordeaux  mixture  only. — Sal-soda,  two  pounds; 
water,  one  gallon;  arsenic,  one  pound.  Mix  the  white  arsenic  into 
a  paste  and  then  add  the  sal-soda  and  water,  and  boil  until  dis- 
solved. Add  water  to  replace  any  that  has  boiled  away,  so  that 
one  gallon  of  stock  solution  is  the  result.  Use  one  quart  of  this 
stock  solution  to  fifty  gallons  of  bordeaux  mixture  for  fruit  trees. 
Make  sure  that  there  is  enough  lime  in  the  mixture  to  prevent  the 
caustic  action  of  the  arsenic. 

For  use  without  bordeaux  mixture. — Sal-soda,  one  pound;  water, 
one  gallon;  white  arsenic,  one  pound;  quicklime,  two  pounds.  Dis- 
solve the  white  arsenic  with  the  water  and  sal-soda  as  above,  and 
use  this  solution  while  hot  to  slake  the  two  pounds  of  lime.  Add 
enough  water  to  make  two  gallons.  Use  two  quarts  of  this  stock 
solution  in  fifty  gallons  of  water. 

As  there  is  always  some  danger  of  foliage-injury  from  the  use 
of  these  home-made  arsenic  compounds,  and  as  they  cannot  be 
safely  combined  with  the  dilute  lime-sulfur  when  used  as  a  summer 
spray,  they  are  now  rarely  employed  in  commercial  orchard  spraying. 

Arsenate  of  lead  was  first  used  as  an  insecticide  in  1893,  in  Massa- 
chusetts. For  orchard  work  throughout  the  country,  it  has  now 
almost  entirely  replaced  paris  green.  It  adheres  better  to  the  leaves, 
may  be  used  at  considerably  greater  strength  without  injuring 
the  foliage,  and  may  be  combined  with  a  dilute  lime-sulfur  solu- 
tion or  with  the  self-boiled  lime-sulfur.  Chemically,  arsenate  of 
lead  may  be  either  triplumbic  arsenate  or  plumbic-hydrogen  arsenate. 
The  commercial  product  usually  consists  of  a  mixture  of  these  two 
forms,  the  proportion  depending  on  the  method  of  manufacture 
employed.  It  is  usually  sold  in  the  form  of  a  thick  paste,  but  for 
some  purposes  the  powdered  form  is  preferred.  Under  the  National 
Insecticide  Law  of  1910,  arsenate  of  lead  paste  must  not  contain 
more  than  50  per  cent  water  and  must  contain  the  arsenic  equivalent 
of  at  least  12  Y^  per  cent  arsenious  oxid.  The  water-soluble  arsenic 
must  not  exceed  an  equivalent  of  three-fourths  of  1  per  cent  of 
V 


338  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

arsenic  oxid.  In  the  best  grades  of  arsenate  of  lead  paste  the  chemi- 
cal is  in  a  finely  divided  condition,  and  thus  when  diluted  for  use 
remains  in  suspension  for  a  considerable  time.  Arsenate  of  lead  is 
used  at  various  strengths,  depending  upon  the  insect  to  be  killed  and 
on  the  susceptibility  of  the  foliage  to  injury.  Four  pounds  in  one 
hundred  gallons  can  be  used  on  the  peach  if  combined  with  the  self- 
boiled  lime-sulfur;  on  apple,  four  to  five  pounds  in  one  hundred  gal- 
lons is  usually  sufficient;  on  grapes  for  killing  the  grape  root-worm 
beetles  and  the  rose-chafer,  eight  to  ten  pounds  in  one  hundred 
gallons  have  been  found  necessary.  The  poison  is  more  readily  eaten 
by  these  beetles  if  sweetened  by  two  gallons  of  molasses  in  one  hun- 
dred gallons;  but,  unfortunately,  the  addition  of  molasses  greatly 
decreases  the  adhesiveness  of  the  poison.  Some  species  of  fruit  flies 
may  be  controlled  by  the  use  of  sweetened  arsenate  of  lead  sprayed 
on  the  foliage  of  the  plants  at  the  first  appearance  of  the  flies.  They 
lap  up  the  poison  with  their  fleshy  tongue-like  mouth-parts  and  suc- 
cumb before  ovipositing. 

Hellebore  is  a  poisoning  insecticide  of  recognized  standing.  It  is 
a  light  brown  powder  made  from  the  roots  of  the  white  hellebore 
plant  (Veratrum  album),  one  of  the  lily  family.  It  is  applied  both 
dry  and  in  water.  In  the  dry  state,  it  is  usually  applied  without  dilu- 
tion, although  the  addition  of  a  little  flour  will  render  it  more  adhe- 
sive. In  water,  four  ounces  of  the  poison  is  mixed  with  two  or  three 
gallons,  and  an  ounce  of  glue,  or  thin  flour  paste,  is  sometimes  added 
to  make  it  adhere.  A  decoction  is  made  by  using  boiling  water  in 
the  same  proportions.  Hellebore  soon  loses  its  strength,  and  a  fresh 
article  should  always  be  demanded.  It  is  much  less  poisonous  than 
the  arsenicals,  and  should  be  used  in  place  of  them  upon  ripening 
fruit.  It  is  used  for  various  leaf-eating  insects,  particularly  for  the 
currant-worm  and  rose-slug. 

Of  the  contact  insecticides,  the  most  important  for  the  fruit- 
grower are  soaps,  kerosene  emulsion,  lime-sulfur  solution  and 
tobacco  preparations. 

Soaps. — The  most  commonly  used  soap  solution  is  that  pre- 
pared from  fish-oil  soap.  The  commercial  brands  of  this  soap  are 
usually  by-products  and  contain  many  impurities;  further,  many  of 
them  contain  an  excess  of  free  or  uncombined  alkali,  and  are  thus 
likely  to  injure  young  and  tender  foliage.  A  good  fish-oil  soap  may 
be  prepared  by  the  following  formula:  Caustic  soda,  six  pounds; 
water,  one  and  one-half  gallons;  fish-oil,  twenty-two  pounds.  Dissolve 


Contact  Insecticides  339 

the  caustic  soda  in  the  water  and  then  add  the  fish-oil  gradually  under 
constant  and  vigorous  stirring.  The  combination  occurs  readily  at 
ordinary  summer  temperatures,  and  boiling  is  unnecessary.  Stir 
briskly  for  about  twenty  minutes  after  the  last  of  the  oil  has  been 
added.  There  is  now  on  the  market  a  good  brand  of  insecticide 
soap  prepared  from  cotton-seed  oil  soap-stock,  or  from  an  impure 
grade  known  as  pancoline. 

Kerosene  emulsion  is  the  oldest  of  our  contact  insecticides.  It  is 
especially  valuable  for  use  against  plant-lice  and  other  small,  soft- 
bodied  insects.  It  is  prepared  by  the  following  formula:  Soap,  one- 
half  pound;  water,  one  gallon;  kerosene,  two  gallons.  Dissolve  the 
soap  in  hot  water;  remove  from  the  fire  and,  while  still  hot,  add  the 
kerosene.  Pump  the  liquid  back  into  itself  for  five  or  ten  minutes 
or  until  it  becomes  a  creamy  mass.  If  properly  made,  the  oil  will  not 
separate  on  cooling.  For  use  on  dormant  trees,  dilute  with  five  to 
seven  parts  of  water.  For  killing  plant-lice  on  foliage,  dilute  with 
ten  to  fifteen  parts  of  water.  Crude-oil  emulsion  is  made  in  the 
same  way  by  substituting  crude-oil  in  place  of  kerosene.  The  strength 
of  oil  emulsions  is  frequently  indicated  by  the  percentage  of  oil  in 
the  diluted  liquid;  for  a  10  per  cent  emulsion,  add  seventeen  gallons 
of  water  to  three  gallons  of  stock  emulsion;  for  a  15  per  cent  emulsion, 
add  ten  and  one-half  gallons  of  water  to  three  gallons  of  stock  emul- 
sion; for  a  20  per  cent  emulsion,  add  seven  gallons  of  water  to  three 
gallons  of  stock  emulsion;  for  a  25  per  cent  emulsion,  add  five  gal- 
lons of  water  to  three  gallons  of  stock  emulsion. 

Lime-sulfur  solution  is  both  insecticide  and  fungicide.  A  solution 
of  lime-sulfur  was  first  used  as  an  insecticide  in  California  in  1886. 
It  is  now  the  standard  remedy  for  blister-mite,  San  Jose  scale  and 
similar  scales,  as  well  as  an  efficient  fungicide.  The  lime-sulfur  solu- 
tion may  be  purchased  in  the  concentrated  form,  or  may  be  prepared 
as  follows:  Lump  lime  (95  per  cent  calcium  oxid),  thirty-eight 
pounds,  or  lump  lime  (90  per  cent  calcium  oxid),  forty  pounds;  sulfur, 
eighty  pounds;  water,  fifty  gallons.  Make  a  paste  of  the  sulfur  with 
about  ten  gallons  of  hot  water.  Add  the  lime.  As  the  lime  slakes, 
add  hot  water  as  necessary  to  prevent  caking.  When  the  lime  has 
slaked,  add  hot  water  to  make  fifty  gallons  and  boil  one  hour,  stirring 
constantly.  Water  should  be  added  from  time  to  time  to  keep  the 
liquid  up  to  fifty  gallons.  Store  in  air-tight  hardwood  barrels.  Test 
the  strength  of  the  solution  with  a  Baum6  hydrometer,  and  dilute 
for  use  according  to  the  following  table: 


340 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


DILUTIONS  FOB  DORMANT   AND   SUMMER  SPRAYING  WITH   LIME- 
SULFUR  MIXTURES 


Reading  on  hydrometer. 
(Degrees  Baume') 

Amount  of  dilution. 
Number  of  gallons  of  water  to  one 
gallon  of  lime-sulfur  solution. 

For  San 
Jos6  scale. 
Dormant. 

For  blister- 
mite. 
Dormant. 

For  summer 
spraying  of 
apples. 

35 

9 

8^ 

f 

Q 

6M 
6^ 
6 

5M 
5 
4^ 
4M 

Q3/ 

ZYz 
3M 
3 
2M 
2K 
iy± 
2 

12H 
12 

iiM 

is* 

9^ 
9 

I* 
I* 

VA 
6 

i* 

4M 
4J| 

4 

3M 

3K2 

45 
43M 
41H 

40 
37^ 
36M 
34M 
32M 
31 
29  H 
27M 
26 
24M 
22M 
21|2 
19M 
18M 
17 
16 
15 
14 
12% 

34 

33 

32  

31  

30  

29  

28... 

27.. 

26  

25  

24 

23 

22 

21 

20 

19  

18  

17  

16  

15       

14 

Commercial  concentrated  lime-sulfur,  as  manufactured  and 
placed  on  the  market,  is  a  clear  amber  liquid,  and  should  test  32° 
to  35°  Baume.  It  costs  about  20  cents  a  gallon  retail,  and  comes 
ready  to  pour  into  the  spray  tank.  For  apple  and  pear  diseases 
arsenate  of  lead  can  be  used  with  this  solution,  and  increases  its 
fungicidal  value. 

Scott's  self -boiled  lime-sulfur  is  a  mechanical  mixture  of  the  two 
substances,  and  is  really  not  boiled,  the  heat  being  supplied  by  the 
slaking  lime.  In  a  small  barrel  or  keg  place  eight  pounds  of  good 
quicklime.  Add  water  from  time  to  time  in  just  sufficient  amounts 
to  prevent  burning.  As  soon  as  the  lime  begins  to  slake  well,  add 
slowly  (preferably  through  a  sieve)  eight  pounds  of  sulfur  flour.  Stir 
constantly,  and  add  water  as  needed.  As  soon  as  all  bubbling  has 
ceased,  check  further  action  by  adding  a  quantity  of  cold  water,  or 


Tobacco  Insecticides  341 

pour  into  a  barrel  or  tank  and  make  up  to  fifty  gallons.  Keep  well 
agitated.  Very  effective  against  peach-scab  and  brown-rot.  Several 
other  formulas  have  been  used:  10-10-50  and  5-5-50.  Arsenate  of 
lead  can  be  used  with  this  mixture.  By  using  boiling  water  and  allow- 
ing the  hot  mixture  to  stand  for  half  an  hour,  a  stronger  spray  mix- 
ture than  the  above  can  be  secured.  It  cannot  be  used  safely  on 
peaches,  but  has  been  used  successfully  on  grapes  for  surface  mildew. 
The  addition  of  sulf  ate  of  iron  or  sulf  ate  of  copper,  one  to  two  pounds 
to  fifty  gallons,  has  been  used  for  apple-rust. 

Tobacco  is  one  of  our  most  useful  insecticides.  The  poisonous 
principle  in  tobacco  is  an  alkaloid  nicotine,  which,  in  the  pure  state, 
is  a  colorless  fluid,  slightly  heavier  than  water,  of  little  smell  when 
cold  and  with  an  exceedingly  acrid  burning  taste  even  when  largely 
diluted.  It  is  soluble  in  water  and  entirely  volatile.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  virulent  poisons  known;  a  single  drop  is  sufficient  to  kill  a  dog. 
Commercial  tobacco  preparations  have  been  on  the  market  for  many 
years.  The  most  important  of  these  are  black  leaf,  "black  leaf  40," 
and  nicofume. 

"Black  leaf"  was  formerly  the  most  widely  used  tobacco  extract. 
It  contains  only  2.7  per  cent  nicotine  and  has  now  been  replaced  by 
the  more  concentrated  extracts.  It  is  used  for  plant-lice  at  the  rate 
of  one  gallon  to  sixty-five  gallons  of  water. 

"Black  leaf  40"  is  a  concentrate  tobacco  extract  containing  40 
per  cent  nicotine  sulf  ate.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about  1.25.  In  this 
preparation  the  nicotine  is  in  a  non-volatile  form,  it  having  been 
treated  with  sulfuric  acid  to  form  the  sulfate.  "Black  leaf  40"  is 
used  at  strengths  varying  from  one  part  in  800  parts  of  water  to  one 
part  in  1,600  parts.  It  can  be  satisfactorily  combined  with  other 
sprays,  as  for  example,  lime-sulfur  solution,  arsenate  of  lead,  and 
the  various  soap  solutions.  When  used  with  water,  about  four  pounds 
of  soap  should  be  added  to  make  the  mixture  spread  and  stick  better. 

"Nicofume"  is  a  tobacco  extract  containing  40  per  cent  of  nicotine 
in  the  volatile  form.  Strips  of  paper  soaked  in  this  preparation  are 
smudged  in  greenhouses  to  destroy  aphids. 

Tobacco  is  also  used  in  the  form  of  dust  for  the  same  purpose.  It 
is  especially  valuable  against  root-lice  on  asters  and  other  plants. 
Tobacco  extracts  can  be  made  at  home  by  steeping  tobacco  stems 
in  water,  but  as  they  vary  greatly  in  nicotine  content  and  are  some- 
times likely  to  injure  tender  foliage,  it  is  better  to  buy  the  stand- 
ardized extracts. 


342  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

The  standard  fungicides  for  spraying  purposes  are  bordeaux 
mixture  and  lime-sulfur.  The  lime-sulfur  has  already  been  dis- 
cussed; we  may  now  take  up  the  preparation  of  bordeaux. 

Bordeaux  mixture  is  a  bluish  green  copper  compound  that  settles 
out  when  freshly  slaked  lime  and  a  solution  of  copper  sulfate  (blue- 
stone)  are  mixed.  Many  formulas  have  been  recommended  and  used. 
The  5-5-50  formula  may  be  regarded  as  standard.  In  such  a  formula 
the  first  figure  refers  to  the  number  of  pounds  of  copper  sulfate,  the 
second  to  the  stone  or  hydrated  lime,  and  the  third  to  the  number  of 
gallons  of  water.  Bordeaux  must  often  be  used  as  weak  as  2-2-50, 
on  account  of  injury  to  some  plants. 

To  make  fifty  gallons  of  bordeaux  mixture,  proceed  as  follows: 

(1)  Pulverize  five  pounds  of  copper  sulfate  (blue-stone),  place 
in  a  glass,  wooden  or  brass  vessel,  and  add  two  or  three  gallons  of 
hot  water.    In  another  vessel  slake  five  pounds  of  quicklime  in  a 
small  amount  of  water.    When  the  copper  sulfate  is  all  dissolved, 
pour  into  a  barrel  and  add  water  to  make  forty  to  forty-five  gallons. 
Now  strain  the  lime  into  this,  using  a  sieve  fifty  meshes  to  the  inch 
or  a  piece  of  cheese-cloth  supported  by  ordinary  screening.    Stir 
thoroughly,  and  add  water  to  the  fifty-gallon  mark.   The  flocculenfc 
substance  which   settles   is   the   effective   fungicide.     Always   stir 
vigorously  before  filling  the  sprayer.    Never  add  the  strong  lime 
to  strong  vitriol.    Always  add  a  large  amount  of  water  to  one  or 
the  other  first.    Copper  sulfate  used  alone  would  not  only  wash  off 
quickly  in  a  rain,  but  cause  a  severe  burning  of  fruit  and  foliage. 
Lime  is  added  to  neutralize  this  burning  effect  of  the  copper.   If  the 
lime  were  absolutely  pure,  only  slightly  more  than  one  pound  would 
be  required  to  neutralize  this  burning  effect.    For  many  purposes 
an  excess  of  lime  is  not  objectionable  and  may  be  desirable.    For 
nearly  ripe  fruit  and  ornamentals  an  excess  of  lime  augments  spotting. 
In  such  cases  the  least  amount  of  lime  possible  should  be  used. 
Determine  this  by  applying  the  cyanide  test  (2). 

(2)  Secure  from   the  druggist   10   cents'   worth   of  potassium 
ferrocyanide  (yellow  prussiate  of  potash)  and  dissolve  it  in  water 
in  an  eight-ounce  bottle.   Cut  a  V-shaped  slit  in  one  side  of  the  cork, 
so  that  a  few  drops  of  the  liquid  can  be  obtained.    Now  proceed  as 
before.    Add  lime  with  constant  stirring  until  a  drop  of  the  ferro- 
cyanide ceases  to  give  a  reddish  brown  color. 

(3)  When  bordeaux  mixture  is  desired  in  large  quantities,  stock 
solutions  should  be  made.    Place  one  hundred  pounds  of  copper 


The  List  of  Pests  343 

Bulfate  in  a  bag  of  coffee-sacking,  and  suspend  in  the  top  cf  a  fifty- 
gallon  barrel,  and  add  water  to  the  fifty-gallon  mark.  In  twelve 
to  fifteen  hours  the  vitriol  will  be  dissolved,  and  each  gallon  of 
solution  will  contain  two  pounds  of  copper  sulfate.  Slake  a  barrel 
of  lime,  and  store  in  a  tight  barrel,  keeping  it  covered  with  water. 
Lime  so  treated  will  keep  all  summer.  It  is  really  hydrated  lime. 
This  is  often  dried,  pulverized,  and  offered  on  the  market  in  paper 
bags  of  forty  pounds  each,  under  such  names  as  ground  lime,  pre- 
pared lime,  hydrated  lime,  and  the  like.  If  the  paper  is  not  broken, 
the  lime  does  not  air-slake  for  a  long  time.  One  and  one-third  pounds 
of  hydrated  lime  equals  in  value  one  pound  of  quicklime.  Air-slaked 
lime  cannot  be  used  in  preparing  bordeaux  mixture. 

Arsenical  poisons  can  be  combined  with  bordeaux  mixture. 


LEADING  FRUIT  INSECTS  AND   DISEASES   THAT  ARE 
CONTROLLED   BY   SPRAYING 

The  insects,  mites,  parasitic  fungi,  bacteria  and  other 
organisms  that  attack  fruit  plants  of  one  kind  or  another 
are  legion;  but  there  are  several  prominent  pests  and  dis- 
eases of  each  of  the  temperate-climate  fruits  that  should 
be  recognized  by  every  fruit-grower.  The  following  notes, 
assembled  from  the  statements  of.Reddick,  and  of  Crosby 
and  Matheson,  represent  the  best  advice  that  is  available 
at  the  present  writing.  The  grower  should  keep  himself 
well  informed  on  the  new  practices.  Only  such  insects 
and  diseases  are  included  as  yield  to  treatment  by  spray- 
ing or  similar  practices;  borers,  cankers  and  similar 
troubles  are  discussed  in  Chapter  VIII. 

Apple. — APHIDS,  or  PLANT-LICE. — Three  species  commonly  attack 
the  opening  buds  and  leaves  of  apple — the  leaf  aphis  (Aphis 
pomi),  rosy  aphis  (Aphis  sorbi)  and  bud  aphis  (Siphocoryne 
averne). 

These  small,  soft-bodied  insects  may  be  controlled  by  thor- 
ough  spraying  with  "black   leaf  40"  tobacco  extract,   three- 


344 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


fourths  of  a  pint  in  one-hundred  gallons  of  water,  adding  four 
pounds  of  soap.   Make  the  application  before  the  leaves  curl. 

APPLE-SCAB  (Venturia  inequalis). — Olive-green,  brownish  or  black- 
ish scab-like  spots  on  leaves  and  fruit.  Scab  is  one  of  the  most 
prevalent,  as  well  as  one  of  the  most  damaging,  of  the  apple 
diseases.  It  appears  on  the  leaves  (Fig.  130)  and  also  in  the 
fruit  (Fig.  131).  Whetzel. 
The  definite  lesions  are 
readily  distinguished 
from  the  rusty,  irregular 
injuries  often  caused  by 
bordeaux  mixture  (Fig. 
132,  N.  Y.  Exp.  Sta.). 

Rake  and  burn  or 
plow  under  old  leaves 
very  early  in  spring. 
Spray  with  lime-sulfur 
32°  Baum4,  1^0,  or 
bordeaux,  3-3-50:  (1) 
when  blossom  buds  show 
pink;  (2)  when  majority 
of  petals  have  fallen;  (3) 
three  weeks  after  2,  de- 
pending  upon  the 
weather;  (4)  if  a  late 
attack  is  feared,  spray 
before  fall  rains  begin. 

AppLE-CuRCULio  (Anthono- 
mus  quadrigibbus) . — A 
soft,  white  grub,  about 
3/£in.  long,  in  the  fruit. 

Clean  cultivation.     Rake  the  small,   early-dropped  apples 
out  into  the  sun  where  they  will  dry  up. 

APPLE  LEAF-HOPPER  (Empoasca  mali}. — A  slender,  pale  yellow- 
ish green  bug;  the  nymphs  are  pale  greenish  and  usually  found 
on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves.  The  winter  eggs  are  laid  in 
blisters  under  the  bark  of  the  smaller  branches;  summer  eggs, 
in  the  leaf  veins  and  petioles.  Four  generations  annually.  The 
insect  feeds  by  extracting  the  juices  from  the  leaves,  causing  them 
to  turn  pale  and  curl.  It  is  most  injurious  to  nursery  stock. 


FIG.  130.  The  characteristic  markings 
of  apple-scab. 


Apple  Insects 


345 


The  young  nymphs  may  be  killed  by  spraying  with  "black 

leaf  40"  tobacco  extract,  three-fourths  of  a  pint  in  one  hundred 

gallons  of  water,  adding 

three  to  four  pounds  of 

soarj.  Nurserymen  of  ten 

catch  the  adults  by  the 

use  of  sticky  shields. 
APPLE    LEAF-ROLLER 

(Archips  argyrospila).  — 

A  green  caterpillar  with 

a  black  head,  1  inch  or 

less     in     length    when 

mature,    attacks    the 

opening    buds,     rolling 

and    webbing    together 

the  leaves,  flowers  and 

young  fruit  into  a  nest. 

Holes  are  eaten  in  the 

young  apples,  deforming 

them.    Eggs  are  laid  in 

June  in  small,  flat  masses  on  the  bark,  and  are  covered  with  a 

smooth,  varnish-like  coating.   They  do  not  hatch  till  the  follow- 

ing spring. 

To  kill  eggs,  spray  with  miscible  oil,  one  gallon  in  fifteen  gal- 

lons of  water,  making  the  application  as  late  as  possible  before 

the  buds  open.    If   the 

eggs    have    been    neg- 

lected, recourse  must  be 

had  to  arsenate  of  lead, 

six  pounds  in  one  hun- 

dred gallons  water. 

Apply  before  the  blos- 

soms open. 
APPLE-MAGGOT  (Rhagoletis 

pomonella).  —  A   white 

maggot     that     tunnels 

apples    through    and 


FJG>  m>  Apple_scab. 


through,  causing  decay 
and  falling  of  the  fruit. 
The  parent  flies  appear 


FIG.  132.  Bordeaux  injury. 


346  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

the  latter  part  of  June  and  early  July,  and  insert  the  eggs  under 
the  skin  of  the  fruit.  Hibernation  takes  place  in  small  puparia 
just  below  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Sweet  and  subacid  varieties 
are  most  susceptible,  but  others  are  sometimes  attacked. 

Clean  cultivation.  Spray  when  flies  appear  with  arsenate  of 
lead,  four  pounds  in  one  hundred  gallons  of  water.  The  addition 
of  two  or  three  gallons  of  molasses  is  supposed  to  render  the 
poison  more  attractive  to  the  flies. 

BROWN-TAIL  MOTH  (Euphroctis  chrysvrrhaxi) . — This  highly  destruc- 
tive European  insect  was  introduced  near  Boston  a  number  of 
years  ago,  and  is  now  rapidly  spreading  over  New  England.  The 
snow-white  moths,  with  a  large  tuft  of  brown  hairs  at  the  tip  of 
the  abdomen,  appear  in  July,  and  deposit  eggs  on  the  leaves  in 
elongate  masses  covered  with  brown  hairs  from  the  body  of  the 
female.  The  caterpillars  become  only  partly  grown  the  first 
season,  and  hibernate  in  conspicuous  nests,  3  to  4  inches  long, 
at  the  tips  of  the  branches.  The  black-bodied  caterpillars,  clothed 
with  rather  long,  brownish,  stinging  hairs,  complete  their  growth 
the  next  spring,  feeding  ravenously  on  the  tender  foliage  and 
causing  great  damage  in  orchards,  parks  and  forests. 

Cut  out  and  burn  all  winter  nests  before  the  buds  start.  In 
the  spring,  spray  with  arsenate  of  lead,  as  recommended  for  the 
gipsy-moth.  Prevent  the  ascent  of  caterpillars  from  other  trees 
by  banding  the  trunks  with  tanglefoot.  Keep  the  bands  fresh 
by  combing  the  surface  every  few  days. 

BUD-MOTH  (Tmetocera  ocellana). — The  small  brown  caterpillars 
with  black  heads  burrow  into  the  buds,  feeding  on  the  opening 
leaves  and  flowers  and  web  them  together. 

Spray  with  arsenate  of  lead,  four  pounds  in  one  hundred 
gallons  of  water,  just  as  the  blossoms  show  pink,  and  again  as  the 
last  of  the  petals  are  falling. 

CANKER-WORM,  FALL  (Alsophila  pometaria) . — Wingless  female 
moths  usually  emerge  from  the  ground  in  late  autumn,  crawl 
up  the  trees  and  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  smaller  branches. 
The  eggs  hatch  in  April  or  May,  and  the  blackish,  yellow-striped, 
looping  caterpillars  defoliate  the  trees. 

Band  tree  trunks  in  the  fall  with  tanglefoot  or  cotton  batting 
to  prevent  ascent  of  moths.  The  young  canker-worms  may  be 
killed  by  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead,  six  pounds  to  one  hun- 
dred gallons  of  water. 


Apple  Insects  347 

CANKER-WORM,    SPRING    (Paleacrita  vemata). — Habits   similar   to 

the  fall  canker-worm,  but  the  moths  emerge  in  March  and  April. 

Caterpillars  are  distinguished  by  having  only  two  pairs  of  prolegs. 

Same  as  for  fall  canker-worm  except  the  bands  should  be 

applied  in  early  spring. 

CASE-BEARERS. — The  pistol-case-bearer  (Coleophora  malivorella) 
and  the  cigar-case-bearer  (C.  fletcherella). — The  small  cater- 
pillars live  in  pistol-  or  cigar-shaped  cases,  about  ^  inch  long, 
that  they  carry  around  with  them.  They  appear  in  spring  on 
the  opening  buds  at  the  same  time  as  the  bud-moth,  and  may  be 
controlled  by  the  same  means. 

CODLIN-MOTH  (Carpocapsa  pomonella). — This  is  the  pinkish  cater- 
pillar which  causes  a  large  proportion  of  wormy  apples.  The 
eggs  are  laid  by  a  small  moth  on  the  leaves  and  the  skin  of  the 
fruit.  Most  of  the  caterpillars  enter  the  apple  at  the  blossom  end. 
When  the  petals  fall,  the  calyx  is  open  and  this  is  the  time  for 
spraying.  The  calyx  soon  closes,  and  keeps  the  poison  inside 
ready  for  the  young  caterpillars'  first  meal.  After  the  calyx  has 
closed,  it  is  too  late  to  spray  effectively.  The  caterpillars  become 
full  grown  in  July  and  August,  leave  the  fruit,  crawl  down  on 
the  trunk,  and  there  most  of  them  spin  cocoons  under  the  loose 
bark.  In  most  parts  of  the  country  there  are  two  broods  annually. 
As  the  last  of  petals  are  falling,  spray  with  four  pounds 
arsenate  of  lead  in  one  hundred  gallons  of  water,  using  a  stiff 
spray  to  force  it  into  the  blossom  end  of  the  apple.  Repeat  the 
application  three  weeks  later. 

FALL  WEB- WORM  (Hyphantria  cunea). — Hairy  larva,  about  an  inch 
long,  varying  from  gray  to  pale  yellow  or  bluish  black,  feeding 
upon  the  leaves  of  many  trees,  in  tents  or  webs. 

Destroy  by  burning  the  webs,  or  removing  them  and  crush- 
ing the  larvae.  Spray  with  arsenicals. 

GREEN  FRUIT-WORMS  (Xylina  sp.). — Yellowish  or  apple-green 
caterpillars,  striped  with  cream-color,  1  to  !}/£  inches  in  length 
when  mature,  attack  the  opening  leaves  and  blossoms  and 
eat  holes  in  the  developing  fruit.  The  parent  moths  emerge 
from  hibernation  in  early  spring  and  lay  their  eggs  on  the  smaller 
branches.  One  brood  annually. 

Thorough  and  repeated  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead,  six 
pounds  in  one  hundred  gallons  of  water,  will  kill  many  of  the  young 
caterpillars.  Make  the  application  when  blossom  clusters  appear. 


348  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

GYPSY-MOTH  (Porthetria  dispar). — The  full-grown  caterpillar  is 
about  2  inches  long,  dark  gray  in  ground-color,  with  eleven  pairs 
of  prominent  tubercles  on  the  back,  the  first  five  pairs  blue,  the 
last  six  dark  red.  They  become  full  grown  about  the  first  of 
July.  They  pupate  in  slight  cocoons.  The  moths  emerge  in 
seven  to  seventeen  days.  The  male  has  a  light  brown  body, 
wings  yellowish  brown,  and  each  front  wing  is  crossed  by  four 
wavy,  dark  brown  lines.  In  the  female  the  body  is  light  buff  and 
the  wings  grayish  white.  The  dark  markings  on  the  front  wings 
are  similar  to  those  of  the  male.  The  females  do  not  fly,  but  each 
lays  its  eggs  in  a  mass  about  an  inch  in  length  covered  with  hairs 
from  its  body.  Hibernation  takes  place  in  the  egg-stage.  The 
eggs  hatch  just  as  the  buds  are  bursting. 

Kill  the  eggs  by  saturating  the  masses  with  crude  coal-tar 
creosote,  to  which  a  little  lamp-black  has  been  aded  as  a  marker. 
When  the  young  caterpillars  hatch,  spray  the  trees  with  arsenate 
of  lead,  ten  pounds  in  one  hundred  gallons  of  water.  When  the 
caterpillars  are  half  grown,  use  thirteen  to  fifteen  pounds  of  lead 
arsenate.  Full-grown  caterpillars  are  very  resistant  to  poisons. 
Band  the  tree  trunks  with  tanglefoot  to  prevent  the  ascent  of 
wandering  caterpillars. 

OYSTER-SHELL  SCALE  (Lepidosaphes  ulmi). — This  is  an  elongate 
scale  (sometimes  called  bark-louse),  %  inch  in  length,  resem- 
bling an  oyster-shell  in  shape,  and  often  incrusting  the  bark. 
It  hibernates  as  minute  white  eggs  under  the  old  scales.  The 
eggs  hatch  during  the  latter  part  of  May  or  in  June,  the  date 
depending  on  the  season.  After  they  hatch,  the  young  may  be 
seen  as  tiny  whitish  lice  crawling  about  on  the  bark.  When 
these  young  appear,  spray  with  kerosene  emulsion,  diluted  with 
six  parts  of  water,  or  whale-oil  or  any  good  soap,  one  pound 
in  four  or  five  gallons  of  water.  When  trees  are  regularly  sprayed 
with  lime-sulfur,  as  for  the  San  Jose  scale  or  blister-mite,  the 
oyster-shell  scale  is  usually  controlled.  This  is  a  very  prevalent 
pest,  and  should  be  kept  under  complete  control. 

PALMER  WORM  (Ypsolophus  pometellus). — The  brownish  green, 
white-striped  caterpillars,  %  inch  in  length  when  mature, 
skeletonize  the  tender  foliage  in  June  and  eat  holes  in  the  young 
apples.  There  is  only  one  brood  a  year. 

Spray  with  arsenate  of  lead,  four  pounds  in  one  hundred  gal- 
lons of  water,  when  the  caterpillars  first  appear. 


Apple  Insects  349 

PLUM-CURCULIO  (Conotrachelus  nenuphar). — A  snout-beetle  that 
deforms  the  fruit  by  its  characteristic  feeding  and  egg-laying 
punctures.  The  grubs  develop  in  the  fruit  and  cause  it  to  fall. 

Spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead,  as  for  codlin-moth,  whenever 
it  can  be  applied  with  a  fungicide  so  as  not  to  increase  expense, 
will  help  to  control  the  trouble.  Thorough  superficial  tillage  of 
the  surface  of  soil  during  July  and  August  will  kill  many  of  .the 
pupse,  and  is  recommended.  For  treatment  on  plum,  see  under 
Plum. 

RED  BUGS  (Heterocordylus  malinus  and  Lygidea  mendax). — The  win- 
ter is  passed  as  eggs  inserted  in  the  smaller  branches.  The  bril- 
liant red  nymphs  appear  as  the  buds  open  and  feed  on  the  foliage 
for  a  time.  Then  they  puncture  the  newly  set  apples,  causing  one 
of  three  things:  Some  drop,  some  dry  up  and  remain  on  trees 
till  next  spring,  and  others  mature  as  knotty,  misshapen,  worth- 
less fruit.  One  generation  a  year. 

The  young  nymphs  may  be  killed  by  thorough  spraying  with 
"black  leaf  40"  tobacco  extract,  one  pint  in  one  hundred  gal- 
lons water,  adding  four  pounds  of  soap,  (1)  when  blossoms  show 
pink,  (2)  when  the  last  of  the  petals  are  falling. 

ROSE-CHAFER. — See  Grape. 

SAN  JOSE  SCALE  (Aspidiotus  perniciosus). — This  scale  is  nearly 
circular  in  outline  and  about  the  size  of  a  pinhead.  When  abun- 
dant it  forms  a  crust  on  the  branches,  and  causes  small  red  spots 
on  the  fruit.  It  multiplies  with  marvelous  rapidity,  there  being 
three  or  four  broods  annually,  and  each  mother  scale  may  give 
birth  to  several  hundred  young.  The  young  are  born  alive,  and 
breeding  continues  until  late  autumn,  when  all  stages  are  killed 
by  the  cold  weather,  except  the  tiny,  half-grown,  black  scales, 
many  of  which  hibernate  safely. 

Spray  thoroughly  in  the  fall  after  the  leaves  drop,  or  early 
in  the  spring  before  growth  begins,  with  lime-sulfur  wash,  one  gal- 
lon in  eight  gallons  of  water,  or  miscible  oil,  one  gallon  in  fifteen 
gallons  of  water.  When  badly  infested,  make  two  applications, 
one  hi  the  fall  and  another  in  the  spring.  In  case  of  large,  old 
trees,  25  per  cent  crude-oil  emulsion  should  be  applied  just  as 
the  buds  are  swelling. 

TENT-CATERPILLARS  (Malacosoma  americana  and  M.  disstria). — 
Larvae  nearly  2  inches  long,  spotted  and  striped  with  yellow,  white 
and  black;  feeding  upon  the  leaves.  They  congregate  in  tents  or 


350  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

in  clusters  on  the  bark  at  night  and  in  cool  weather,  and  forage 
out  upon  the  branches  during  the  day. 

Arsenicals,  as  for  codlin-moth.  Burn  out  nests  with  torch,  or 
cut  them  out  and  crush  the  larvse.  Pick  off  egg-masses  from  twigs 
during  winter  and  spring. 

TUSSOCK-MOTH  (Hemerocampa  leucostigma) . — A  handsome,  red- 
headed, yellow-and-black  tufted  caterpillar,  about  an  inch  long, 
which  devours  the  leaves  and  sometimes  eats  into  the  fruit. 

Collect  the  frothy  egg-masses  in  fall  and  winter  and  band  the 
trees  to  prevent  a  reinfestation  by  migrating  caterpillars.  Spray 
with  arsenicals  as  for  codling-moth,  taking  care  to  cover  the  under 
side  of  the  leaves. 

WOOLLY  APHIS  (Schizoneura  lanigera) . — Small,  reddish  brown  plant- 
lice  covered  with  a  conspicuous  mass  of  white,  waxy  fibers, 
found  on  the  branches,  sprouts,  trunks  and  roots. 

For  the  form  above  ground  drench  the  infested  parts  with  15 
per  cent  kerosene  emulsion;  for  the  underground  form  remove  the 
earth  beneath  the  tree  to  a  depth  of  3  inches,  and  apply  10  per 
cent  kerosene  emulsion  liberally,  and  replace  the  earth.  In  the 
case  of  nursery  stock  the  emulsion  may  be  applied  in  a  shallow 
furrow  close  to  the  row.  Do  not  set  infested  trees. 

Apricot.   Diseases  and  insects  require  treatment  similar  to  those  of 

peach  and  plum. 

Bramble  Fruits.  BLACKBERRY  CROWN-GALL  or  ROOT-GALL  (Bac- 
terium tumefaciens) . — Swellings,  hard  or  soft,  on  roots  and 
stem  below  ground. 

Plow  up  and  burn  all  bushes  in  a  diseased  patch.    Plant 
clean  roots  in  a  new  place. 

BLACKBERRY  LEAF-MINER  (Metellus  rubi). — Greenish  white 
larvse,  with  brown  markings,  %  inch  in  length  when  full- 
grown,  causing  blotch  mines  in  the  leaves. 

No  satisfactory  treatment  is  known. 

DEWBERRY  LEAF-SPOT  (Septoria  rubi). — Small  pale  spots  of 
dead  leaf-tissue  finally  becoming  dotted  with  black  specks. 

No  successful  method  of  treatment  is  known. 
RASPBERRY  ANTHRACNOSE  (Gl&osporium  venetum). — Circular  or 
elliptical,  gray,  scab-like  spots  on  the  canes. 

Remove  diseased  canes  as  soon  as  fruit  is  picked.    Avoid 
taking  young  plants  from  diseased  plantings. 


Brambles  and  Cherries  351 

RED  or  ORANGE  RUST  (Gymnoconia  interstitialis) . — Dense,  red, 
powdery  growth  on  under  side  of  leaves  of  black  raspberries 
and  blackberries. 

Dig  .up  and  destroy  affected  plants. 

RASPBERRY  ROOT-BORER  (Bembeda  marginata). — Larva  about 
1  inch  long,  boring  in  the  roots  and  the  lower  parts  of  the  cane, 
remaining  in  the  root  over  winter. 

Dig  out  the  borers.   Destroy  wild  berry  bushes. 
RASPBERRY  SAW-FLY    (Monophadnus  rubi). — Larva  about    ^ 
inch  long,  green,  feeding  upon  the  leaves. 

Hellebore;  arsenicals,  after  fruiting. 
RED-SPIDER. — See  Peach.    Do  not  use  lime-sulfur  on  raspberry 

foliage. 

TREE-CRICKET  (CEcanthus  nigricornis) . — Small  and  whitish 
cricket-like  insect,  puncturing  canes  for  2  to  3  inches,  and 
depositing  eggs  in  the  punctures. 

Burn  all  infested  canes  in  winter  or  very  early  spring. 
Cherry.  BROWN-ROT  (Sclerotinia  fructigena). — The  flowers  decay, 
the  leaves  become  discolored  with  irregular  brown  spots, 
and  the  fruit  rots  on  the  tree. 

Spray  with  bordeaux  mixture,  4-^r-50,  or  lime-sulfur, 
1-40  (1)  just  before  the  blossom  buds  open;  (2)  just  after 
the  blossoms  fall;  (3)  one  or  two  more  applications  at  inter- 
vals of  ten  days. 

APHIS  (Myzus  cerasi). — Blackish  plant-lice  infesting  the  leaves 
and  tips  of  new  growth.  • 

Spray  as  soon  as  the  first  lice  appear,  with  whale-oil  soap 
or  tobacco  extract. 

BLACK-KNOT. — See  under  Plum;  same  disease. 
CHERRY  FRUIT-FLIES   (Rhagoletis    dngulata    and  R.  fausta). — 
Small  maggots  infesting  ripening  fruit.    Adults  are  flies  with 
banded  wings  and  insert  their  eggs  under  the  skin  of  the  fruit. 
Spray  with  arsenate  of  lead,  five  pounds  in  one  hundred 
gallons,  sweetened  with  three  gallons  of  molasses  to  kill  flies 
before  egg-laying.    Should  be  done  when  flies  first  appear, — 
last  of  June  in  New  York. 

CHERRY  TREE  TORTRIX  (Archips  cerasivorana) . — Tips  of  branches 
are  frequently  webbed  into  nests  by  colonies  of  lemon-yellow 
caterpillars. 

Wipe  out  nests  and  destroy  the  caterpillars. 


352  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

POWDERY  MILDEW  (Podosphaera  oxycanthse). — Leaves  and  twigs 
affected,  often  causing  defoliation. 

Spray  with  lime-sulfur,  1-40,  or  dust  heavily  with  pow- 
dered sulfur. 

SLUG  (Eriocampoides  limacina). — Larva  ^  inch  long,  blackish 
and  slimy,  feeding  upon  the  leaves;  two  broods. 

Arsenicals,  hellebore,  tobacco  extract. 

Chestnut.  CANKER,  or  BARK  DISEASE  (Endothia  parasitica). — 
Sunken  or  swollen  cankers  on  limbs  or  trunk.  Limbs  die  and 
leaves  and  burs  cling  in  winter. 

Control. — Remove  diseased  parts  and  burn.  Paint  all 
wounds.  Little  chance  of  saving  trees  in  infested  locality. 
WEEVILS  (Balaninus  probosddeus  and  B.  rectus). —  Brownish 
beetles  with  extremely  long,  slender  snouts  with  which 
they  bore  holes  into  the  nuts  for  deposition  of  eggs.  The 
grubs  feed  on  the  kernel,  producing  wormy  nuts. 

Treatment. — No  satisfactory  control  measures  known. 
TWO-LINED    CHESTNUT-BORER    (Agrilus    bilineatus). —  Slender, 
flattened  grubs,  %  inch  long,  when  mature,  burrowing  under 
the  bark  and  girdling  the  trees. 

Treatment. — Cut  and  burn  infested  trees  to  prevent  spread. 
Cranberry.    BLAST,  or  SCALD  (Guignardia  vacdnii). — Young  flower 
and  fruits  blasted,  older  fruits  appear  scalded  or  watery. 

Spray  five  or  six  times  with  bordeaux  mixture,  5-5-50,  to 
which  has  been  added  four  pounds  of  resin  fish-oil  soap. 
Begin  just  before  the  blossoms  open. 

CRANBERRY  FULGORID  (Phylloscelis  atra}. — Small,  broad-bodied, 
black,  jumping  insect  punctures  the  vines,  causing  the  leaves 
to  turn  brown  and  the  fruit  to  shrivel. 

"Black  leaf  40"  tobacco  extract,  one  pint  to  one  hundred 
gallons  of  water,  adding  four  to  five  pounds  of  soap  to  kill 
young  nymphs. 

CRANBERRY-GIRDLER  (Crambus  hortuellus). — Small  caterpillar, 
feeding  on  the  stems  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  sand. 

Reflow  just  after  picking,  for  a  week  or  ten  days,  or  reflow 
for  a  day  or  two  about  June  10. 

FALSE  ARMY- WORM  (Calocampa  nupera). — Green  to  blackish 
caterpillars  devouring  the  leaves  and  buds. 

Reflow  for  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  soon 
after  the  middle  of  May.  It  may  be  necessary  to  reflow  a 


Cranberry  and  Currant  353 

second  time.  Destroy  all  caterpillars  washed  ashore  while  the 
water  is  on.  In  dry  bogs,  spray  early  in  May  with  arsenate 
of  lead. 

FIRE- WORM,  CRANBERRY- WORM,  or  BLACK-HEADED  CRANBERRY- 
WORM  (Eudemis  vacdniana). — Small  larva,  green,  black- 
headed,  feeding  upon  the  shoots  and  young  leaves,  drawing 
them  together  by  silken  threads;  two  broods. 

Flooding  for  two  or  three  days  when  the  worms  come 
down  to  pupate.  Arsenicals. 

FRUIT- WORM  (Mineola  vaccinii). — Small  caterpillar  working  in 
the  fruits,  eating  out  the  insides. 

For  bogs  with  abundant  water,  reflow  for  ten  days  immedi- 
ately after  picking.  Let  the  foliage  ripen,  and  then  turn  on 
water  for  winter.  Draw  off  water  early  in  April,  and  every 
third  or  fourth  year  hold  it  on  until  the  middle  of  May.  For 
dry  bogs  spray  three  times  with  arsenate  of  lead  during  July. 
Burn  all  screenings. 

YELLOW-HEADED  CRANBERRY- WORM  (Acleris  minuta). — Stout, 
yellowish  green,  small  caterpillar,  with  a  yellow  head,  webbing 
up  the  leaves  as  it  works. 

Hold  the  water  late  on  the  bog  in  spring  to  prevent  egg- 
laying.  Arsenicals  from  the  middle  of  May  till  July  1. 

Currant.   WILT,  or  CANE-BLIGHT  (Botryosphseria  ribis). — Canes  die 
suddenly,  the  leaves  wilting. 

No  satisfactory  method  of  control  is  known.  Cut  out  and 
burn  affected  plants. 

RUST  (Cronartium  ribicola). — Brown  rust  pustules  and  brown 
felt-like  growth  on  under  side  of  leaf.  Black  currants  espe- 
ially  susceptible. 

Grow  at  least  500  feet  from  white  pine  trees. 
CURRANT   APHIS    (Myzus   ribis). — Small,    yellowish   green   lice 
attacking  the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  distorting  the  leaves 
and  causing  them  to  turn  red. 

Contact  insecticides  when  leaves  first  appear. 
CURRANT  MEASURING-  or  SPAN-WORM  (Cymatophora  ribearia). — 
Larva  somewhat  over  an  inch  long,  with  stripes  and  dotted 
with  yellow  or  black,  feeding  upon  the  leaves. 

Hellebore,    applied    stronger    than    for    currant-worm. 
Arsenicals;  hand-picking. 
W 


354  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

CURRANT-WORM,      OF      CURRANT      and      GOOSEBERRY      SAW-FLY 

(Pteronus  ribesii).- — Larva,  about  %  inch  long,  yellowish 
green,  feeding  on  leaves  of  red  and  white  varieties;  two  to 
four  broods. 

Hellebore,  applied  early;  arsenicals  for  the  early  brood. 
Treatment  should  begin  while  the  larvae  are  on  the  lower- 
most leaves  of  the  bushes.  Before  the  leaves  are  fully  grown, 
the  holes  made  by  the  worms  may  be  seen.  The  second 
brood  is  best  destroyed  by  killing  the  first  brood. 
FOUR-STRIPED  PLANT-BUG  (Psecilocapsus  lineatus). — A  bright 
yellow,  black-striped  bug  about  ^  inch  long,  puncturing  the 
young  leaves  and  shoots  of  many  plants. 

Jar  into  a  dish  of  kerosene.    Kerosene  emulsion  when 
the  nymphs  are  young.   Cut  off  the  tips  of  the  shoots  in  early 
spring  to  destroy  the  eggs. 
Dewberry.  See  Bramble  Fruits. 

Gooseberry.   MILDEW  (Sphseroiheca  m&rs-uvse). — A  powdery  mildew 
of  the  fruit  and  young  growth  of  English  varieties. 

Spray  with  potassium  sulfid,  one  ounce  to  two  gallons  of 
water,  at  intervals  after  leaves  begin  to  unfold. 
GOOSEBERRY  FRUIT- WORM  (Dakruma  convolutella) . — Larva  about 
%  inch  long,  greenish  or  yellowish,  feeding  in  the  berry,  caus- 
ing it  to  ripen  prematurely. 

Destroy  affected  berries.   Clean  cultivation.   Poultry. 
Grape.    BLACK-ROT  (Guignardia  bidwellii). — Brown  circular  spots 
on  leaves,  black,  elongated,  sunken  pits  on  petioles,  canes,  etc., 
and  on  the  berry  a  brown  rot,  with  shriveling  and  wrinkling. 

Spray  with  bordeaux  mixture,  4-4-50,  before  rains. 
Spray  (1)  when  the  third  or  fourth  leaf  unfolds;  (2)  as  soon 
as  the  blossoms  have  fallen;  (3)  when  berries  are  size  of  a  pea; 
(4)  about  two  weeks  later.  Two  or  more  applications  if  wet 


DOWNY  MILDEW,  or  LEAF-BLIGHT  (Plasmopara  viticold). — White 
frost-like  patches  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf. 
Same  as  for  black-rot. 

GRAPE-CURCULIO  (Craponius  insequalis}. — Larva  small, 
white,  with  a  brownish  head.  Infests  the  grape  in  June  and 
July,  causing  a  little  black  hole  in  the  skin  and  a  discolora- 
tion of  the  berry  immediately  around  it.  The  adult  is  a  gray- 
ish brown  snout-beetle,  about  one-tenth  inch  long. 


Grape  Insects  and  Diseases  355 

Spray  with  arsenate  of  lead  while  the  beetles  are  feeding 
on  the  leaves.  The  beetles  may  be  jarred  down  on  sheets,  as 
with  the  plum-curculio.  Bag  the  clusters. 

GRAPE  ROOT- WORM  (Fidia  viticida). — The  small  white  grubs 
feed  upon  the  roots,  often  killing  the  vines  in  a  few  years. 
The  adults  are  small,  grayish  brown  beetles  that  eat  peculiar 
chain-like  holes  in  the  leaves  during  July  and  August. 

Cultivate  thoroughly  in  June,  especially  close  around  the 
vines  to  kill  the  pupae  in  the  soil.  At  the  first  appearance  of 
the  beetles,  spray  the  plants  with  arsenate  of  lead  at  the  rate 
of  eight  or  ten  pounds  in  one  hundred  gallons  'of  water,  to 
which  should  be  added  one  gallon  of  molasses. 

GRAPE-SLUG  or  SAW-FLY   (Selandria  vitis). — Larva,  about   l/$ 
inch  long,  yellowish  green  with  black  points,  feeding  upon  the 
leaves;  two  broods. 
Arsenicals;  hellebore. 

GRAPEBERRY-WORM  (Polychrosis  viteana). — Larva,  about  K 
inch  long,  feeding  on  the  berry,  often  securing  three  or  four 
together  by  a  web;  two  broods. 

Spray  with  arsenate  of  lead  before  blossoms  open.  Repeat 
after  blooming  and  again  in  early  July.  Destroy  wormy 
berries  in  August. 

GRAPE-VINE  FLEA-BEETLE  (Graptodera  chalybea). — Beetle,  of  a 
blue  metallic  color,  about  34  inch  long,  feeding  upon  the  buds 
and  tender  shoots  in  early  spring. 

Arsenicals  to  kill  the  grubs  on  leaves  during  May  and  June. 
The  beetle  can  be  caught  by  jarring  on  bright  days. 

GRAPE-VINE  SPHINX  (Ampelophaga  myron). — A  large  larva,  2 
inches  long  when  mature,  green  with  yellow  spots  and  stripes, 
bearing  a  horn  at  the  posterior  extremity,  feeding  upon  the 
leaves  and  nipping  off  the  young  clusters  of  grapes;  two 
broods. 

Hand-picking.   Arsenicals  early  in  the  season. 

LEAF-HOPPER  (Typhlocyba  comes). — These  small  yellowish  leaf- 
hoppers,  erroneously  called  "thrips,"  suck  the  sap  from  the 
under  side  of  the  leaves,  causing  them  to  turn  brown  and 
dry  up. 

Spray  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  very  thoroughly  with 
one  gallon  "black  leaf  40"  in  1,000  gallons  of  water  about 
July  1,  to  kill  the  young  leaf-hoppers.  When  using  tobacco 


356  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

extract,  add  about  two  pounds  soap  to  each  fifty  gallons  to 
make  it  spread  and  stick  better.  Repeat  the  application  in  a 
week  or  ten  days.  In  houses,  tobacco  smoke,  pyrethrum 
poured  upon  coals  held  under  the  vines,  syringing  with 
tobacco-water  or  soapsuds. 

ROSE-CHAFER     (Macrodactylus     subspinosus') . — The     ungainly, 
long-legged  grayish  beetles  occur  in  sandy  regions,  and  often 
swarm  into  vineyards  and  destroy  the  blossoms  and  foliage. 
At  the  first  appearance  of  the  beetles,  spray  with  arsenate 
of  lead  at  the  rate  of  eight  to  ten  pounds  in  one  hundred  gal- 
lons of  water,  to  which  should  be  added  one  gallon  of  molasses. 
Hickory.    LEAF-SPOT  (Marsonia  juglandis) . — Large  leaf-spot,  caus- 
ing premature  dying  of  leaves. 

Spraying  with  bordeaux  mixture  may  be  of  value. 
GALL  APHIS  (Phylloxera  sp.). — Yellowish  green  plant-lice  causing 
hollow  galls  on  the  leaves,  petioles  and  small  twigs. 

Spray  with  contact  insecticides  as  buds  are  opening  in 
the  spring. 

Peach.  BLIGHT  (Coryneum  beyerinkii). — A  spotting,  gumming  and 
death  of  the  buds  and  twigs,  particularly  in  the  lower  parts 
of  the  tree.  The  fruit  drops. 

For   California    conditions,    two    applications   bordeaux 
mixture,  5-5-50,  or  lime-sulfur,  1-10,   (1)  in  November  or 
December,  and  (2)  in  February  or  March. 
LEAF-CURL  (Exoascus  deformans). — Leaves  curl  and  wrinkle. 

Spray  with  lime-sulfur,  1—11,  before  buds  swell. 
BROWN-ROT  (Sclerotinia  fructigena). — Rot  on  fruit  and  cankers 
on  limbs. 

Spray  with  self-boiled  lime-sulfur,  8-8-50,  adding  two 
pounds  arsenate  of  lead.  Spray  (1)  about  time  shucks  are 
shedding  from  young  fruit;  (2)  two  or  three  weeks  later; 
(3)  one  month  before  fruit  ripens. 

SCAB,  or  BLACK-SPOT  (Cladosporium  carpophilum) . — Black  scab- 
like  spots  on  fruit. 

Self-boiled  lime-sulfur  applied  as  under  Brown-Rot. 
BLACK  APHIS  (Aphis  persicx-niger) . — A  small  black  or  brown 
plant-louse,  which  attacks  the  tops  and  roots  of  peach  trees. 
When  upon  the  roots  it  is  a  very  serious  enemy,  stunting  the 
tree  and  perhaps  killing  it.   Thrives  in  sandy  lands. 
Kerosene  emulsion;  tobacco  decoction  and  extracts. 


Peach  Insects  and  Diseases  357 

CLOVER  MITE  (Bryobia  pratensis). — Small  reddish  mites  attack- 
ing the  leaves,  causing  them  to  turn  yellow. 

Lime-sulfur  while  trees  are  dormant.  In  summer,  use 
self-boiled  lime-sulfur  as  a  dust,  or  sulfur  paste. 

GREEN  PEACH-LOUSE,  or  APHIS  (Myzus  persicse). — A  small 
insect  feeding  upon  the  young  leaves,  causing  them  to  curl 
and  die. 

Lime-sulfur,  kerosene  emulsion  or  tobacco  extract.  After 
the  buds  open,  either  of  the  last  two. 

PEACH  TWIG-MOTH  (Anarsia  lineatella). — The  larva  of  a  moth, 
24  inch  long,  boring  in  the  ends  of  the  shoots,  and  later  in  the 
season  attacking  the  fruit.  Several  broods. 

Spray  with  lime-sulfur  just  after  the  buds  swell.  Spray 
trunk  and  larger  branches  in  late  spring  to  kill  first  brood 
of  pupae  in  the  curls  of  bark. 

PLUM-CURCULIO  (Conotrachelus  nenuphar}. — This  insect  may  be 
successfully  controlled  on  peach  by  spraying  with  arsenate  of 
lead,  four  pounds  to  one  hundred  gallons  of  self-boiled  lime- 
sulfur.  Spray,  first,  when  the  "husks"  drop  from  the  fruit; 
second,  ten  days  or  two  weeks  later.  It  is  unsafe  to  spray 
peaches  more  than  twice  with  arsenate  of  lead. 

RED  SPIDER,  or  MITE  (Tetrancyhus  bimaculatus) . — A  small  mite 
infesting  many  plants,  both  in  the  greenhouse  and  out-of- 
doors.  It  flourishes  in  dry  atmospheres,  occurring  on  the 
under  sides  of  the  leaves.  In  some  forms  it  is  reddish,  but 
usually  light-colored  and  two-spotted.  Common. 

Persistent  syringing  with  water  will  generally  destroy 
them,  if  the  spray  is  applied  to  the  under  surface.  Use  lots  of 
force  and  little  water  to  avoid  drenching  the  beds.  Sulfur 
and  water.  Dry  sulfur.  On  orchard  trees,  flour  paste. 

WHITE  PEACH  SCALE  (Diaspis  pentagona). — Circular  gray  scales 
with  the  exuviae  at  one  side  of  the  center. 
Same  as  for  San  Jose  Scale.   See  Apple. 

Pear.  BLIGHT  (Bacillus  amylovarus) . — Flowers,  young  fruit,  twigs  and 
leaves  turn  black  and  die.  Limbs  die  back,  and  sunken  cankers 
form  in  bark.  This  is  a  widespread  and  very  damaging  disease. 
Some  varieties  appear  to  be  more  susceptible  than  others. 

Not  amenable  to  spraying.  Eradicate  all  wild  hawthorns, 
pears  and  apples.  Inspect  and  remove  all  blighted  parts  of 
tree.  Paint  wounds  with  coal-tar. 


358  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

SCAB. — Very  similar  to  apple-scab  and  demanding  similar 
treatment. 

MIDGE  (Diplosis  pyrivira). — A  minute  mosquito-like  fly;  lays 
eggs  in  flower-buds  when  they  begin  to  show  white.  These 
hatch  into  minute  grubs  which  distort  and  discolor  the  fruit. 
New  York  and  eastward.  Prefers  the  Lawrence.  Introduced 
in  1877  from  France. 

Not  controlled  by  spraying.  Destroy  the  infested  pears. 
Cultivate  and  plow  in  late  summer  and  fall  to  destroy  the 
pupae  then  in  the  ground. 

PEAR-LEAF  BLISTER-MITE  (Eriophyes  pyri). — A  minute  mite 
which  causes  black  blisters  to  appear  upon  the  leaves.  The 
mites  collect  under  the  bud-scales  in  winter. 

Lime-sulfur  or  miscible  oil  as  a  dormant  spray. 

PEAR  PSYLLA  (Psylla  pyricola). — These  minute,  yellowish,  flat- 
bodied,  sucking  insects  are  often  found  working  in  the  axils  of 
the  leaves  and  fruit  early  in  the  season.  They  develop  into 
minute,  cicada-like  jumping  lice.  The  young  psyllas  secrete 
a  large  quantity  of  honey-dew,  in  which  a  peculiar  black 
fungus  grows,  giving  the  bark  a  characteristic  sooty  appear- 
ance. There  may  be  four  broods  annually,  and  the  trees  are 
often  seriously  injured. 

Clean  culture;  remove  rough  bark  from  trunks  and  larger 
branches  to  discourage  adults  from  hibernating;  spray  with 
"black  leaf  40"  tobacco  extract,  one  pint  in  one  hundred 
gallons  of  water,  adding  four  pounds  soap,  on  warm  days  in 
November  or  April,  to  kill  hibernating  adults.  Spray  with 
lime-sulfur,  winter  strength,  when  the  blossom  clusters 
appear,  to  destroy  eggs. 

In  summer,  spray  with  "black  leaf  40"  tobacco  extract 
just  as  the  last  of  the  petals  are  falling,  to  kill  young.  Repeat 
if  necessary. 

PEAR  THRIPS  (Euthrips  pyri). — Minute  insects  one-twentieth 
inch  in  length,  dark  brown  when  adult,  white  with  red  eyes 
when  young,  that  attack  the  opening  buds  and  young  fruits  in 
early  spring.  They  suck  the  sap  from  the  tender  growth,  and 
the  females  lay  eggs  in  the  fruit-stems,  causing  a  loss  of  the 
crop.  The  nymphs  hibernate  in  the  ground  a  few  inches 
from  the  surface.  A  serious  pest  in  California,  and  recently 
introduced  into  New  York. 


Pecan,  Pear,  and  Plum  Pests  359 

Thorough  cultivation  during  Octpber,  November,  and 
December  (in  California).  Make  two  applications  of  "black 
leaf"  tobacco  extract,  one  gallon  in  sixty  gallons  of  2  per 
cent  distillate  oil  emulsion,  the  first  just  as  the  fruit-buds 
begin  to  open,  the  second  just  after  the  petals  fall.  In  the 
East  it  may  be  controlled  by  timely  applications  of  tobacco 
extract  and  whale-oil  soap. 

Pecan.  BUD-MOTH  (Proteopteryx  deludana). — A  brownish  cater- 
pillar about  y%  inch  in  length,  feeding  on  the  opening  buds 
in  early  spring  and  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  in  summer. 

Arsenate  of  lead  in  summer  to  kill  larvae  of  second  brood. 
Lime-sulfur  and  arsenate  of  lead  in  dormant  season  just 
before  buds  open,  to  destroy  hibernating  larvae. 
CASE-BEARER  (Acrobasis  nebulella). — A  small  caterpillar  living 
inside  a  case  which  it  carries  with  it.  It  attacks  the  opening 
buds. 

Arsenate  of  lead  as  soon  as  the  buds  begin  to  open.  Repeat 
if  necessary. 

Plum.  BLACK -KNOT  (Plowrightia  morbosa). —  Black  tumorous 
swellings  from  1  to  several  inches  in  length,  on  limbs  and 
twigs. 

Orchards  thoroughly  sprayed  with  bordeaux  are  not 
likely  to  be  attacked.  Burn  all  affected  parts  in  the  fall. 
Burn  whole  tree  if  badly  affected. 

CURCULIO   (Conotrachelus  nenuphar). — Larva,   a  whitish  grub, 
feeding  in  the  fruit. 

Arsenate  of  lead,  six  pounds  to  one  hundred  gallons  of 
water;  apply  as  soon  as  the  calyx  falls,  and  repeat  two  or 
three  times  at  intervals  of  about  ten  days.  Jarring  the  beetles 
on  sheets  very  early  in  the  morning,  beginning  when  trees 
are  in  flower,  and  continuing  from  four  to  six  weeks,  is  proba- 
bly the  most  certain  procedure.  There  are  various  styles  of 
sheets  or  receptacles  for  catching  the  insects  as  they  fall  from 
the  tree.  Clean  culture. 
SAN  JOSE  SCALE. — See  Apple. 

EUROPEAN  FRUIT  SCALE   (Lecanium  comi). — A  large  circular 
scale  occurring  on  plum;  occasionally  very  destructive. 

Thorough  spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion,  one  part  to 
five  of  water,  in  the  winter.  More  dilute  emulsion  or  tobacco 
extracts  in  midsummer,  when  the  young  insects  are  on  the 


360  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

leaves   and   young   shoots.    Miscible   oils   when   trees   are 
dormant. 
Quince.  BLIGHT. — See  under  Pear. 

RUST  (Gymnosporangium  globosum). — Orange  rust  of  fruit. 

Destroy  red  cedars  in  the  neighborhood,  also  wild  apples 
and  hawthorns.   Spray  as  for  apple-scab. 
GREEN  APHIDS. — As  for  apple-aphids. 

QUINCE  CURCULIO  (Contrachelus  crat&gi). — This  curculio  is 
somewhat  larger  than  that  infesting  the  plum,  and  differs  in 
its  life-history.  The  grubs  leave  the  fruits  in  the  fall,  and 
enter  the  ground,  where  they  hibernate  and  transform  to 
adults  the  next  May,  June  or  July,  depending  on  the  season. 
When  the  adults  appear,  jar  them  from  the  tree  on  sheets 
or  curculio-catchers,  and  destroy  them.  To  determine  when 
they  appear,  jar  a  few  trees  daily,  beginning  the  latter  part 
of  May.  Spray  with  arsenicals.  Pick  and  burn  all  infested 
fruits  a  month  before  harvesting. 
Raspberry. — See  Bramble  Fruits. 

Strawberry.  LEAF-SPOT,  or  LEAF-BLIGHT  (MycosphasreUa  fra- 
garise). — Small  purple  or  red  spots  appearing  on  leaves.  Leaf 
appears  blotched. 

Spray  with  bordeaux  mixture,  4-^-50,  soon  after  growth 
begins  and  make  three  or  four  additional  sprayings  during 
season. 

LEAF-ROLLER  (Ancylis  comptana). — Larva  less  than  %  inch 
long,  feeding  on  the  leaves,  and  rolling  them  up  in  threads 
of  silk;  two  broods. 

Turn  under  in  the  fall  all  old  beds  that  have  become  worth- 
less. Spray  with  arsenate  of  lead,  four  pounds  in  one  hundred 
gallons  of  water,  after  the  eggs  are  laid  but  before  the  leaves 
are  folded — the  first  half  of  May  hi  the  latitude  of  New  Jersey. 
ROOT-BORER  (Typophorus  canellus). — A  whitish]  grub  %  inch  hi 
length  feeding  on  the  roots.  The  parent  beetle  is  brownish, 
and  appears  in  great  numbers  in  May. 

Arsenicals  to  kill  the  beetles.  Plant  new  beds  at  a  dis- 
tance from  old  ones. 

ROOT-LOUSE  (Aphis  forbesii). — From  July  to  the  close  of  the 
season  the  lice  appear  in  great  numbers  on  the  crowns  and  on 
the  roots  of  the  plants. 

Rotation   in   planting.     Disinfect   plants   coming   from 


Conclusion  of  the  List  of  Pests  361 

infested  patches  by  dipping  the  crowns  and  roots  in  kerosene 
emulsion,  or  tobacco  extract.   Fumigation. 

SAW-FLY    (Emphytus   maculatus) . — Larva   nearly    %   in   long, 
greenish,  feeding  upon  the  leaves;  two  broods. 

Hellebore;  arsenicals  for  second  brood. 

Walnut.  BLIGHT  (Pseudomonas  juglandis). — Appears  as  a  black 
spotting  of  the  fruit  and  as  black  cankers  on  the  stems.  The 
twigs  and  fruit-spurs  are  killed. 

Control. — None,  except  those  ways  mentioned  under  pear- 
blight  (page  357) ;  grow  immune  varieties. 

ANTHRACNOSE   or  LEAF-BLIGHT   (Marsonia  juglandis). — The 
same  disease  that  attacks  hickory  (see  page  356). 


ARSENICAL  POISONING  OF  FRUIT  TREES 

In  the  first  edition  of  this  work,  the  question  was 
asked  as  to  what  becomes  of  the  arsenic  that  finally 
reaches  the  soil  from  the  sprays.  From  the  few  studies 
that  had  then  been  made  of  the  subject  (Cornell  Bull.  No. 
101)  it  was  concluded  that  the  arsenites  do  not  leach 
from  the  soil,  but  "remain  where  they  fall,  the  same  as 
sand  does,  and  are  carried  down  only  when  there  are 
crevices  or  other  openings  in  the  soil,  and  they  go  down  as 
insoluble  compounds,  and,  to  a  slight  extent,  by  the  mere 
mechanical  action  of  the  water."  In  the  early  days  of 
spraying,  the  question  of  the  effect  of  the  materials  on  the 
soil  and  on  live-stock  feeding  on  the  grass  beneath  the 
sprayed  trees  (as  also  on  persons  eating  sprayed  fruit) 
was  much  discussed.  The  subject  of  soil  injury  was  gone 
over  carefully  by  Lodeman  in  his  "Spraying  of  Plants," 
1896,  and  the  experiments  at  that  time  had  shown  no 
danger  following  the  customary  use  of  the  arsenic  and  the 
copper  salts  in  spraying.  "The  only  conclusion  to  be  drawn 
from  these  extracts,"  he  says,  "is  that  proper  applications 
of  insecticides  and  fungicides  will  apparently  never  cause 


362  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

an  appreciable  injury  either  to  the  roots  of  plants  or  to 
the  soil." 

Recent  studies  lead  Headden  to  conclude,  in  conditions 
in  Colorado,  that  the  plant  may  take  up  the  arsenic,  that 
the  arsenical  preparations  used  in  spraying  are  water- 
soluble  to  some  extent,  and  that  the  tree  may  be  injured 
and  killed  by  the  action  of  arsenic  collected  about  the 
crown  or  collar  (Colo.  Bull.  Nos.  131,  157).  Arsenic  was 
found  in  plant  tissue  and  soluble  arsenic  was  detected  in 
the  soil.  "Three  forms  of  this  trouble  were  recognized, — 
corrosive  arsenical  poisoning,  systemic  arsenical  poisoning, 
and  arsenic-lime  poisoning.  The  last  form  is  considered 
as  being  produced  by  the  joint  action  of  lime  and  arsenic, 
because  we  do  not  find  this  trouble  present  on  limestone 
soils  in  general,  nor  is  it  characteristic  of  arsenical  poison- 
ing produced  by  soluble  arsenic  preparations, — sodic 
arsenite,  for  example." 

The  subject  of  soil-poisoning  by  arsenical  materials 
used  in  spraying  is  now  again  under  discussion.  It  needs 
to  be  worked  over  under  many  conditions.  Similar  in- 
juries are  those  of  crown-rot  due,  perhaps,  to  winter  injury, 
and  there  may  be  confusion  between  these  injuries  and 
those  attributed  to  arsenic  poisoning.  Ball  and  Titus  have 
found  (Journ.  Econ.  Ent.  Ill,  pp.  187-197,  1910)  that 
arsenic  can  be  packed  about  the  roots  or  trunks  without 
injury.  The  subject  will  have  increasing  importance,  as 
the  arsenical  materials  are  used  more  liberally  and  as  they 
accumulate  in  the  soil.  Whether  there  is  danger  of  injury 
to  trees  in  humid  regions  is  to  be  determined  by  investi- 
gations in  many  places. 

It  is  a  good  commentary  on  the  certainty  and  regu- 
larity of  spraying,  and  the  control  of  the  processes,  that 


Spraying  Ideals  363 

practically  no  accidents  occur  to  persons  or  to  live-stock, 
notwithstanding  the  immense  quantities  of  poisons  used, 
the  continental  range  of  the  work,  and  the  great  number  of 
persons  employed  in  spraying,  not  only  of  fruit  trees  but 
of  street  and  shade  trees;  and  yet  we  must  look  to  the  day 
when  effective  materials  of  a  less  poisonous  nature  shall 
be  discovered  for  this  important  work  and  also  when 
greater  reliance  than  now  shall  be  placed  on  securing  the 
proper  balance  in  nature. 


CHAPTER    X 

HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  THE  FRUIT 

THE  crop  is  now  grown,  and  the  grower  is  confronted 
with  the  problem  of  disposing  of  it.  If  he  is  growing  the 
fruit  for  profit,  he  must  give  attention  to  the  business 
situation  involved  in  the  picking,  packing,  storing  and 
shipping.  The  actual  selling  of  the  product  is  an  enter- 
prise belonging  to  the  merchantman  rather  than  to  the 
fruit-grower;  but  the  grower  must  understand  the  demands 
of  the  market,  and  the  conditions  under  which  the  sales- 
man is  obliged  to  work. 

Marketing  is  rapidly  coming  to  be  recognized  as  a 
semi-public  function.  It  is  being  regulated  by  legislation 
on  packages  and  inspection,  transportation,  ordinances  on 
marketing  and  licensing  of  middlemen.  The  producer  as 
well  as  the  seller  must  work  within  the  law;  and  it  is  to 
be  expected  that  the  laws  will  be  more  specific  and  con- 
trolling in  the  future.  This  will  impose  a  special  obliga- 
tion on  the  grower  of  fruits  to  raise  a  good  product,  and 
to  grade  and  pack  with  care,  for  fruits  are  mostly  shipped 
in  separate  gift  packages. 

Associations  and  exchanges  for  the  handling  of  fruits 
have  been  productive  of  much  good  and  have  stimulated 
the  business  in  many  parts  of  the  country.  They  are  to 
be  encouraged  when  the  growers  are  ready  for  co-action 
and  when  the  volume  of  business  in  any  definite  geographi- 
cal region  is  large. 

This  book  is  devoted  primarily  to  the  growing  of 
(364) 


The  Gathering  of  the  Fruit  365 

fruits;  but  the  questions  of  marketing  may  be  given  brief 
consideration,  particularly  in  their  bearing  on  the  work  of 
the  grower  himself  and  on  farm  practices.  It  is  not  in- 
tended here  to  take  up  the  larger  questions  of  commercial 
pre-cooling,  refrigeration,  cold-storage,  transportation  and 
salesmanship. 

PICKING   FRUITS 

If  it  is  worth  while  to  exercise  care  and  ingenuity  to 
grow  the  fruit,  it  is  equally  important  to  take  pains  with 
the  finished  product.  It  is  a  pity  to  miss  the  best  rewards  of 
one's  labor  by  carelessness  or  inattention  at  the  harvest. 

When  to  pick. 

Just  when  and  how  the  fruit  should  be  picked  for  best 
market  results  depends  very  largely  on  the  species  or 
variety  of  fruit,  and  greatly  also  on  the  distance  to  which  it 
is  to  be  shipped.  The  closer  and  better  the  market,  the  riper 
the  fruit  should  be  when  taken  from  the  plant.  If  one  is 
fortunate  enough  to  have  a  special  or  personal  market, 
delivering  the  fruit  to  the  consumer  direct,  then  one  may 
hope  to  retain  this  market  only  by  delivering  the  products 
in  the  very  best  dessert  condition.  Such  consumers  are 
willing  to  pay  a  sufficient  extra  price  for  the  advantage  of 
having  the  fruit  taken  from  the  plant  when  it  is  in  its 
highest  state  of  edible  quality.  Most  serious  mistakes  are 
constantly  made  in  the  picking  of  blackberries,  for 
example.  It  is  ordinarily  considered  that  when  the  berries 
are  black  they  are  ripe,  but  such  is  not  the  case.  They 
are  fully  ripe  only  when  they  shake  from  the  bushes 
readily,  and  when  they  are  soft  and  free  from  sharp  acidity. 
In  this  condition,  blackberries  can  be  handled  direct  to 
the  consumers  in  a  local  market  that  is  only  a  few  miles 


366  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

away;  but  they  could  not  be  shipped  by  rail.  The  straw- 
berry is  ordinarily  picked  for  market  when  only  a  part  of 
the  berry  is  really  ripe,  and  when  the  organic  acids  are 
still  too  sharp  and  austere  for  the  dessert.  A  strawberry 
with  a  green  or  white  tip  is  not  yet  in  fit  condition  to 
pick,  if  one  is  expecting  to  reach  a  really  good  market. 

With  the  tree-fruits  in  general,  the  samples  keep  longest 
when  they  are  picked  greenest,  but  they  suffer  thereby  in 
point  of  quality.  There  are  no  well-marked  lines  between 
greenness  or  immaturity,  ripeness  or  full  maturity,  and  over- 
maturity  and  decay.  The  one  stage  passes  into  the  other 
insensibly,  and  it  is  a  part  of  the  normal  chemical  history 
of  the  fruit  that  it  should  begin  an  incipient  breaking  down 
and  disorganization  of  tissue  as  soon  as  the  ripening  pro- 
cess is  complete.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the 
riper  the  fruit,  the  more  nearly  does  it  approach  this  period 
of  disorganization  and  the  sooner  the  breaking  down  of 
the  tissues  may  be  expected  to  begin.  When  the  fruit  is 
picked  very  green,  however,  this  period  of  natural  dis- 
organization is  comparatively  remote.  On  the  other  hand, 
fruits  picked  very  green  are  not  yet  arrived  at  their  most 
edible  stage,  and  unless  they  are  kept  in  the  most  favor- 
able conditions,  they  are  very  likely  to  shrivel  and  to 
become  unmarketable. 

Apples. — In  the  case  of  winter  apples,  it  is  best  to 
pick  them,  if  they  are  to  be  stored  or  exported,  just  as 
they  have  arrived  at  their  full  size  and  when  they  have 
attained  only  a  part  of  their  full  color.  Over-ripe  or  fully 
ripe  fruits  must  be  sent  to  the  market  at  once,  or  else  they 
must  be  kept  in  artificial  cold  storage  in  order  to  halt  the 
chemical  processes,  and  when  they  are  taken  from  storage 
they  are  very  likely  to  decay  quickly.  Apples  picked 
slightly  green,  however,  usually  continue  to  keep  well 


Picking  Apples  and  Pears  367 

after  being  taken  from  cold  storage.  This  was  demon- 
strated at  the  World's  Fair  at  Chicago,  at  which  New 
York  apples  taken  from  cold  storage  remained  on  the 
shelves  in  good  condition  for  several  weeks. 

Pears,  on  the  other  hand,  nearly  always  lose  quality 
by  ripening  fully  upon  the  tree.  The  cells  of  the  fruit  fill 
with  gritty  mineral  matter,  much  to  the  detriment  of 
texture.  It  is  ordinarily  considered  that  the  best  time  to 
pick  a  pear  of  any  variety  is  just  as  soon  as  it  reaches  its 
full  size  and  before  it  has  begun  to  color.  In  most  varie- 
ties, this  stage  is  well  indicated  by  the  facility  with  which 
the  fruit-stem  parts  from  the  spur.  The  pear  is  taken  in 
the  hollow  of  the  hand  and  turned  up;  if  the  stem  snaps 
off  the  spur  at  its  point  of  articulation,  the  fruit  is  con- 
sidered to  be  ripe  enough  to  pick. 

The  pears  are  then  ripened  under  cover.  The  best 
place  in  which  to  ripen  them  is  a  rather  cool  but  dry  room, 
like  a  loft  or  a  chamber.  Here  they  are  piled  on  the  floor  or 
on  racks,  and  they  should  not  lie,  for  the  best  results,  more 
than  three  or  four  pears  deep.  If  they  are  piled  too  deep, 
the  lower  ones  are  likely  to  be  indented  by  the  weight  of 
those  above  them.  The  room  should  be  kept  fairly  close. 
If  there  is  too  much  circulation  of  air,  and  if  the  tempera- 
ture is  high,  the  pears  ripen  too  quickly,  and  often  shrivel. 
A  Bartlett  pear,  when  properly  picked  and  handled, 
ordinarily  requires  a  full  week  in  which  to  ripen  to  its  best 
quality,  and  the  ripening  process  may  often  be  continued 
considerably  longer  than  this  by  picking  the  fruit  early  and 
keeping  it  cool.  Kieffers,  especially  if  grown  in  the  North, 
seem  to  ripen  best  if  they  are  stored  in  bulk,  like  beans, 
two  to  three  feet  deep,  or  even  in  barrels,  and  the  ripening 
process  is  ordinarily  two  to  three  weeks  long.  If  they  are 
given  this  long  time  in  which  to  mature,  the  quality  may 


368  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

be  expected  to  be  very  much  better  than  in  the  general 
run  of  samples. 

Stone-fruits. — A  peach  is  fit  to  pick  when  it  is  full 
grown  and  has  begun  to  develop  its  characteristic  color. 
Peaches  and  apricots  do  not  ordinarily  color  up  well 
after  they  are  picked,  although  plums  usually  will  do  so, 
especially  the  Japanese  plums,  which  may  be  picked  very 
green  and  yet  develop  a  high  color.  It  is  very  difficult  to 
describe  that  period  of  maturity  at  which  a  peach  is  ready 
for  picking.  An  experienced  picker  will  take  the  fruit 
softly  in  his  hand  and  press  the  ball  of  his  thumb  very 
lightly  on  the  side,  and  if  the  fruit  has  a  somewhat  springy 
feeling,  it  is  ready  to  take  from  the  tree.  This  pressure 
is  never  sufficient  to  leave  any  mark  on  the  fruit.  Pinching 
a  peach  will  usually  spoil  it.  If  the  peach  is  too  green,  it 
will  feel  hard  and  stone-like.  If  it  is  too  soft,  it  will  simply 
indent,  and  will  not  have  the  characteristic  elastic  feeling. 

In  the  case  of  cherries  and  plums,  it  is  very  important 
that  the  fruits  be  picked  just  before  they  have  reached 
their  condition  of  most  edible  quality.  This  is  largely 
because  the  fruit-rot  fungus  is  likely  to  destroy  the  fruits 
at  the  tune  of  their  ripening,  especially  on  those  varieties 
particularly  subject  to  the  disorder.  Amongst  plums,  the 
Lombard  is  one  of  the  most  seriously  attacked;  and 
amongst  cherries,  nearly  all  the  white-fleshed  varieties,  like 
Governor  Wood  and  Napoleon,  are  greatly  subject  to 
injury.  If  the  weather  at  picking  time  gives  promise  of 
being  close  and  warm  or  "muggy,"  then  it  is  exceedingly 
important  that  the  fruit  should  be  picked  early.  In 
sweet  cherries,  a  delay  of  a  few  hours  will  sometimes 
result  in  the  loss  of  an  entire  crop  from  the  fruit-rot 
fungus.  Cherries  and  plums  should  always  be  picked,  if 
possible,  when  they  are  perfectly  dry.  This  is  especially 


Decay  of  Cherries  369 

true  of  the  sweet  cherries;  if  they  are  picked  when  they 
are  wet,  and  put  into  boxes  or  baskets  in  this  condition, 
they  will  be  almost  certain  to  decay  before  reaching  the 
market,  unless  the  weather  remains  very  cool. 

This  fruit-rot  fungus  is  very  damaging  on  many  stone- 
fruits.  In  sweet  cherries,  writes  G.  H.  Powell,  "the  losses 
from  this  disease  which  have  come  under  my  observation 
are  invariably  the  result  of  letting  the  fruit  hang  on  the 
trees  till  ripe,  and  then  the  rot  is  very  active;  but  cherries 
should  be  picked  a  few  days  before  ripe,  before  they  soften, 
and  then  the  rot  does  not  seriously  affect  them.  An  illus- 
tration of  this  point,  which  is  a  most  important  one,  was 
brought  to  my  notice  the  present  season.  The  last  week  of 
June,  in  eastern  New  York,  was  very  hot  and  close,  with 
showers  every  day  or  two.  The  cherries  were  then  ripen- 
ing, and  the  conditions  were  favorable  for  the  rot  to  spread. 
In  one  orchard,  from  which  several  tons  of  cherries  were 
shipped  that  week,  there  was  not  more  than  one  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds  destroyed  by  the  rot,  while  in  another 
orchard  a  few  miles  distant  at  least  ten  tons  of  the  same 
varieties  were  ruined  on  the  trees.  In  the  first  orchard  the 
fruit  was  picked  before  it  had  ripened,  and  all  that  was  fit 
was  taken  off  as  soon  as  the  trees  dried  off  after  a  shower; 
in  the  other  orchard  it  was  left  till  nearly  ripe,  and  one- 
half  to  two-thirds  of  the  crop  was  lost  before  the  fruit 
could  be  picked.  So  rapid  is  the  work  of  this  fungus  at 
this  period,  that  the  owner  of  the  orchard  told  me  that  he 
lost  three  tons  of  one  variety  in  one  night.  It  might  be 
added  that  the  orchard  first  mentioned  was  a  much 
stronger  one,  as  it  was  in  cultivation,  while  the  last  had 
been  in  sod  for  years,  and  the  general  debility  and  neglect 
of  the  trees  made  them  good  subjects  for  the  attacks  of 
rot  or  any  other  disease." 
x 


370 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


FIG.  133.  A  good  berry-stand  for  the  field. 


How  to  pick. 

In  picking  the  soft  fruits,  like  cherries  and  plums,  the 
operator  grasps  the  stem  and  not  the  fruit  itself.   In  this 

way  he  does  not  remove 
the  delicate  bloom,  and 
does  not  injure  the  fruit 
when  pulling  it  from 
the  spur.  In  the  case  of 
grapes,  it  is  likewise  very 
important,  especially  in 
those  with  a  heavy  bloom,  that  the  picker  should  not 
grasp  the  bunch  itself,  but  should  take  the  cluster  by  the 
stem  and  snip  it  off  with  shears  (which  are  made  for  the 
purpose).  In  the  case  of  peaches  and  apricots,  this  pre- 
caution, of  course,  need  not  be  taken,  because  the  stem  does 
not  naturally  adhere  to  the  fruit;  but  the  operator  must 
be  very  careful,  when  picking  these  fruits,  not  to  grasp 
them  too  tightly,  otherwise  he  will  bruise  them  and  cause 
them  to  become  discolored.  Strawberries  should  always 
be  picked  with  the  stems  on.  A  berry  that  has  the  hull 
pulled  out  is  not  fit  for  the  market.  The  picker  should 
grasp  the  stem  itself  and  pinch  it  off  between  the  thumb 
and  finger.  Every  evidence  of  fruits  having  been  touched 
by  the  hands  detracts  from  their  market  value. 

On  all  fruits  that  grow  on  a  distinct  pedicel  or  stem, 
this  stem  should  be  allowed 
to  remain.  Pears  with  the 
stems  pulled  out  or  broken 
in  two  are  never  first-class 
fruits,  no  matter  how  good 
and  uniform  the  specimens 
otherwise  may  be.  This  is 
even  true  of  apples  when  they 


How  to  Gather  the  Fruit 


371 


FIQ.  135.  Tray  for  berry-boxes. 


are  put  up  for  the  finest  dessert  trade;  but  as  they  are 
ordinarily  handled,  very  little  attention  is  paid  to  leaving 
the  stems  on.  Leaving  the  stems  on  is  vital  to  the  hand- 
ling of  plums  and  cherries,  not 
only  because  the  market  demands 
it,  but  because  the  fruit  will  be 
very  likely  to  rot  if  the  stems  are 
pulled  out,  and  they  will  not  pack 
so  snugly  and  will  not  stand  the 
transportation  so  well.  The  stems 
of  cherries,  plums  and  currants,  and  the  hulls  of  straw- 
berries, serve  a  most  useful  purpose  in  holding  the  fruits 
in  place  in  the  box  or  basket,  and  in  taking  up  the  slack 
from  settling  or  shrinkage. 

It  is  only  in  rare  cases  that 
fruit  should  be  sent  to  the  market 
hi  the  packages  in  which  the  pick- 
ers place  it;  it  will  need  to  be 
sorted  from  these  packages  into 
others,  and  this  sorting  should  be 
done  in  a  cool  shed  or  packing- 
room.  In  the  picking  of  small-fruits,  various  kinds  of  trays 
or  stands  are  used.  In  strawberries,  it  is  important  that 
these  stands  should  have  legs,  so  that  when  the  package 
is  set  down  it  will  not  crush  berries  on  the  vines,  and 
neither  will  it  be  so  likely  to  tip  over.  Such 
stands  are  handy  for  grapes,  or  for  any  kind 
of  berry  fruits  as  well.  Fig.  133  shows  a  type 
of  berry-stand  largely  used  for  the  picking 
of  raspberries  and  blackberries.  This  stand 
holds  six  one-quart  boxes,  and  a  tier  is  easily 
stacked  upon  another,  one  tier  or  layer  of  FIG.  137.  A  half- 
stands  breaking  joints  with  those  above  and  Setpicking~ 


FIG.  136.  Berry-stand  on  legs. 


372 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


below.    Other  types  of  berry-stands  are  shown  in  Figs. 
134-136. 

In  the  picking  of  tender  or  ripe  tree-fruits,  it  is  best  to 
use  a  basket  (Fig.  137)  and  not  a  bag,  for  in  spite  of 
all  one  can  do,  the  fruit  is  bruised  when  it  is  thrown  into  a 
bag  slung  over  the  shoulder.  Winter  apples,  however,  are 
sometimes  picked  in  bags  (Fig.  138).  In  the  picking 


FIG.  138.  The  apple  harvest. 

of  peaches  and  other  soft  fruits,  it  is  customary  to  pick 
in  something  like  a  Climax  basket  or,  better  still,  in  the 
old-fashioned,  tall,  round-top,  peck  baskets,  such  as 
are  standards  in  New  Jersey  and  other  places.  These 
baskets  may  be  held  at  about  one's  middle  by  dropping 
them  into  a  hoop  held  on  the  person  by  a  strap  running 
over  the  shoulder  and  under  one  arm  (Fig.  139).  This 
allows  the  picker  the  free  use  of  both  arms,  and  obviates 
the  necessity  of  his  being  obliged  to  stretch  or  stoop  to 


Picking-Baskets 


373 


deposit  the  fruit  after  he  has  picked  it.  The  baskets  are 
filled  about  level  full,  all  the  fruits  that  are  ripe  enough  for 
picking  being  saved  indiscriminately.  The  basket  is  then 
set  in  the  shade  alongside  the  tree  from  which  the  fruit 
was  taken,  and  at  intervals  a  wagon  or  cart  collects  the 
baskets  and  takes  them  to  the  packing-room,  where 
the  fruit  is  sorted,  graded  and  packed. 

In  the  picking 
of  apples,  the  best 
method  is  ordi- 
narily to  use  a 
half -bushel,  round- 
bottomed,  splint 
(not  woven)  bas- 
ket with  a  swing- 
ing handle  (as  in 
Fig.  137).  If  the 
basket  is  lined  on 
the  inside  with 
thick  cloth  or  bur- 
lap, it  will  answer 
the  purpose  all  the 
better.  This  bas- 
ket is  provided 
with  a  strong  wire  hook  that  can  be  hung  over  a  limb,  allow- 
ing the  picker  to  have  both  hands  free.  There  are  special 
conveniences  for  apple-picking,  which  are  not  proper 
subjects  for  discussion  in  a  general  fruit-book. 

There  are  various  appliances  to  facilitate  the  picking 
of  fruit,  some  of  which  may  be  briefly  mentioned.  The 
fruit-picker  should  provide  himself  with  an  ample  supply 
of  crates  or  baskets,  or  whatever  other  receptacle  may  be 
used  in  the  field.  The  receptacles  should  be  strong  and 


FIG.  139.  Picking  stone-fruits. 


374  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

durable,  so  that  they  may  be  used  year  after  year;  this  is 
especially  true  of  the  baskets  and  crates  used  for  the 
picking  of  the  heavier  fruits,  as  pears,  apples  and  grapes. 
It  is  usually  advisable  to  take  the  fruits  to  the  packing- 
house in  the  very  baskets  or  boxes  in  which  they  are 
placed  from  the  tree,  thereby  avoiding  unnecessary  hand- 
ling of  the  fruit.  In  the  case  of  winter  apples,  however, 
it  is  sometimes  admissible  carefully  to  pour  the  apples  from 
the  round-bottomed  baskets,  into  which  they  are  picked, 
into  bushel  baskets,  or  sometimes  into,  crates  such  as  are 
used  for  potatoes.  In  any  case  it  is  always  advisable,  in 
the  best  quality  of  fruit,  to  have  all  these  baskets  or  crates 
lined  with  burlap  or  padded. 

The  best  wagons  for  use  in  orchards  are  those  of  the 
platform  style,  with  low  and  very  broad-tired  wheels,  and 
the  platform  extending  over  the  wheels.  Such  wagons  are 
not  only  capable  of  carrying  a  very  large  load,  but  do  not 
cut  up  the  ground;  they  are  easily  drawn  and  managed, 
and  they  escape  the  limbs  hi  low  orchards.  It  is  desirable 
that  the  front  wheels  move  under  the  platform,  hi  order 
that  the  wagon  may  be  turned  at  sharp  angles.  The  prac- 
tice of  loading  apples  and  other  fruits  into  a  wagon  box 
in  bulk  cannot  be  too  strongly  deprecated.  It  is  admissible 
only  when  the  apples  are  of  low  quality,  and  are  fit  for 
sale  as  second  and  third  grades,  or  for  manufacture  into 
cider,  evaporated  stock  or  other  products. 

Ladders  for  picking. 

The  styles  of  ladders  to  be  used  must  depend  directly 
on  the  height  of  the  trees.  In  old  apple  orchards,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  long  and  light  ladders,  with  a  sharp  or 
peaked  top,  which  can  be  run  directly  up  into  the  top  of 
the  tree  and  find  lodgment  against  the  branches.  Exten- 


Kinds  of  Ladders 


375 


sion  ladders  are  also  used,  but  they  are  usually  more 
cumbersome  and  more  difficult  to  manage  than  the  light 
pointed-top  pattern.  In  most  other  orchards,  however, 
a  step-ladder  of  the  ordinary  pattern,  but  perhaps  some- 
what taller  (run- 
ning from  10  to 
even  12  feet  high), 
is  all  that  will  be 
required.  This 
ladder  should  have 
a  flat  top,  and  also 
a  movable  shelf  on 
its  back,  where 
baskets  may  be  ^-^PT  j, 
placed.  The  facility 
of  picking  fruit  is 
very  much  in- 
creased if  the  trees 
have  been  well 
trained  and  pruned. 
Dwarf  pears  should 
rarely  reach  a 
height  of  more  than 
12  to  15  feet;  and 
if  pear  and  apple 
trees  are  planted 
sufficiently  far 
apart,  and  are  kept 
open  at  the  base,  the  pickers  can  reach  most  of  the  fruit 
by  climbing.  In  the  picking  of  apples  and  pears,  nothing 
answers  the  purpose  so  well  as  a  strong,  nimble  boy  who  is 
not  afraid  to  climb.  In  many  orchards  the  long  and 
cumbersome  ladders  may  be  almost  entirely  dispensed 


FIG.  140.  Various  types  of  ladder  arrangements. 


376 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


with  if  this  requisite  is  at  hand.   In  a  fruit  country,  good 

workmen  may  usually  be  secured. 

For  getting  into  the  topsol 
fruit  trees,  a  short  and  very 
light  ladder  with  three  or  four 
rungs  is  exceedingly  useful.  This 
little  ladder  will  also  aid  greatly 
in  the  gathering  of  fruit  that 
hangs  on  the  lower  limbs  just 
out  of  the  reach  of  the  picker. 
The  ladder  is  stood  upright  and 
the  picker  mounts  it  quickly, 
crossing  his  legs  over  the  top 
one  or  two  rungs,  and  holds 
himself  erect  by  grasping  a  limb 
above  his  head,  as  shown  in  the 
illustration  (Fig.  140,  2).  This 

type  of  ladder  is  used  by  professional  top-grafters. 

The  pictures  show  various  forms  of  fruit  ladders.  In 

Fig.  140,  the  items  are  as  follows:  No.  1  is  a  light  ladder 

with  a  wheel,  allowing  it  to  be  wheeled 

like  a  barrow  when  it  is  shut,  as  at  4;  2 

is  the  short  ladder,  not  requiring  sup- 
port, described  in  the  text;  3,  a  German 

device  for  securing  a  support  to  the 

ladder,  allowing  the  two  supporting  legs 

to  be  shut  together;  5  is  a  pointed  ladder 

with  support;  6,  a  similar  ladder,  with- 
out support,  very  useful  in  tall  trees;  7 

is  a  platform  ladder;  8  is  a  wagon  rigged 

for  picking,  the  planks,  y,  y,  upon  which 

the  picker  stands,  being  swung  length- 

.      V.        ,  ,  ,    .     .          .  FIG.  142.  The  Japanese 

wise  the  box  when  driving  from  tree  to  ladder. 


FIG.  141.  Two  types  of  tripod 
picking-ladders. 


The  Picking  of  Fruits 


377 


tree.  The  so-called  tripod  ladders  are  shown  in  Fig.  141, 
and  the  Japanese  ladder  in  Fig.  142  (both  adapted  from 
Ore.  Bull.  No.  118).  The  picking  scene  in  Fig.  138  shows 
ladders  in  actual  use  in  tall  apple  trees. 

Fruit-pickers  and  harvesters. 

The  various  kinds  of  fruit-picking  devices  on  the 
market  are  useful  only  for  gathering  the  few  outlying 
fruits  on  the  tall  and  far-reaching  limbs.  In  Fig.  143  are 
shown  some  of  the  fruit-picking  implements,  as  follows : 
No.  1,  picker  com- 
posed of  two 
pincer-like  jaws, 
with  wire  guards  to 
receive  the  fruits, 
the  jaws  being 
closed  by  means  of 
a  cord,  which  is 
worked  below  (2 
and  3)  by  a  catch; 

4,  hook    used   for 
cutting    off    the 
fruits    (the   curved 
edge  being  sharp); 

5,  V- picker    with 
delivery    sack;    6, 
bag-picker,  hung  on 
a    wire   frame    (as 
shown  in  7);  8,  a 
wire  finger -picker; 
9,  cranberry  picker 
(now  probably  little 

USed)  ;     10,     6-quart      FIG.  143.  Different  implements  for  picking  fruits. 


378  The  Principles  of  Fruiting-gr owing 

cranberry  measure;  11,   12,   13,  forms  of  wire -pickers. 
There  are  many  other  forms. 

It  is  never  practicable  to  use  picking  implements  for 
the  gathering  of  the  entire  crop,  except  in  those  very  rare 
cases  in  which  the  crop  is  small  and  all  the  fruits  are  fit 
for  the  dessert  trade.  The  labor  of  picking  with  these 
devices  is  slow  and  onerous.  One  of  the  best  types  of 
fruit-pickers  is  shown  at  5  in  Fig.  143  which  may  be 
made  by  any  handy  man.  The  fruits  are  hooked  off  by  the 
V-shaped  trigger  at  the  top,  and  are  delivered  to  the  picker 
through  the  canvas  or  burlap  bag  that  extends  along 
the  handle.  Of  course,  only  one  fruit  should  be  allowed 
to  go  through  the  bag  at  a  time.  Another  very  handy 
device  is  the  finger-picker,  illustrated  at  13.  This  may  be 
made  by  any  handy  tinsmith,  who,  however,  should  be 
cautioned  against  making  it  too  heavy  and  cumbersome. 
In  this  instance,  the  apple  is  delivered  to  the  picker  by 
taking  down  the  instrument.  The  disadvantage  of  this 
tool  is  that  the  fingers  are  likely  to  spring  with  use,  and 
the  apple  will  pull  through  between  them  rather  than  be 
pulled  off.  There  are  also  devices  in  use  for  catching  the 

fruit  when  it  is  shaken 
from  the  tree  or  bush. 
These  are  usually  on 
the  principle  of  a  soft 
cloth  hopper  (see  Fig. 
144).  Such  machines 
are  .often  very  useful  in 
the  gathering  of  black 
currants  and  goose- 

*)*  .*^»M*».._-»     i      poses^    inverted    um_ 

FIG.  144.  Cook's  apple-picker,  brellaS   are 


Harvesting  Machines 


379 


used.  Cherries  were  formerly  sometimes  gathered  by 
being  shaken  into  the  machines  used  for  the  catching  of 
curculios.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  these  means  of 
gathering  fruit  «  are  advisable  only  when  the  fruit 
is  to  be  manu-  |B  facturedintosomecommercial  prod- 
uct, or  when 
the  price  of  fruit 
is  extremely 
small. 

To  lessen 
the  cost  of  har- 
vesting and  to 
overcome  the 
difficulty  of 
securing  pick- 
ers in  remote 
places,  a  har- 
vester for  rasp- 
berries  has 
come  into  use. 
This  is  a  canvas 
tray,  made  by  stretching  the  cloth  over  a  light  wooden 
frame  about  3  feet  wide  and  4  to  5  feet  long.  At  the  bottom, 
the  frame  projects  upward  at  right  angle  to  the  body  of 
the  frame  to  a  distance  of  5  or  6  inches,  to  catch  the  berries 
as  they  fall  upon  the  canvas.  A  wooden  shoe  or  runner 
is  placed  on  the  bottom  of  the  apparatus,  to  allow  the 
operator  to  slide  it  along  from  bush  to  bush,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  145.  A  long  wire  hook  is  used  to  pull  the  bushes 
over  the  tray,  or  to  lift  up  the  fallen  canes,  while  with 
the  other  hand  the  operator  deftly  cuffs  off  the  berries 
with  a  paddle  of  wood,  or  of  wire  covered  with  canvas, 
and  about  the  size  of  a  butter-ladle.  This  harvester 


FIG.  145.  Harvesting  rasp- 
berries by  batting;  and  the 
batter's  hook. 


380  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

is  used  only  for  the  gathering  of  berries  that  are  to  be 
evaporated.  The  berries  are  allowed  to  become  fully 
ripe,  so  that  they  fall  easily,  and  the  patch  is  gone  over 
about  three  times.  Much  litter  falls  with  the  berries,  but 
this  is  readily  removed  by  running  the  dried  fruit  through 
a  fanning  mill.  There  are  few  growers  who  use  this  har- 
vester exclusively.  It  is  often  brought  into  requisition  for 
the  last  picking,  or  in  seasons  of  low  prices,  and  it  also  has 
a  stimulating  effect  on  a  lot  of  disaffected  berry-pickers. 

Necessity  of  hand-picking. 

It  would  seem  to  be  unnecessary  to  say  that  all  fruits 
intended  for  a  good  market  should  be  hand-picked,  and 
yet  it  is  a  fact  that  a  great  quantity  of  the  apples,  and 
even  of  the  pears  and  plums,  that  go  into  our  common 
markets  are  shaken  from  the  trees.  It  is  impracticable 
to  grade  or  assort  such  fruits,  because  the  proportion  of 
jammed  or  bruised  specimens  is  so  great  that  the  samples 
of  first  quality  are  found  to  be  very  few.  It  is  an  axiom  in 
fruit-marketing  that  only  the  best  fruit  pays  for  careful 
packing,  and  that  the  poor  fruit  is  rarely  worth  the  trouble 
of  grading.  The  better  the  fruit,  therefore,  and  the  more 
carefully  it  is  picked,  the  more  profitable  may  be  the 
attention  given  to  sorting  and  packing. 

CARING  FOB  THE  FRUIT  AFTER  PICKING 

After  fruit  is  picked,  it  is  very  important  that  it  be 
kept  cool  and  away  from  the  direct  sun.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  with  the  soft  and  berry-like  fruits,  as  grapes, 
strawberries,  cherries  and  peaches.  The  fruits  not  only 
ripen  rapidly  after  they  are  picked  if  the  sun  strikes  them, 
but  they  may  also  become  so  warm  that  they  will  not  with- 


Handling  Fruit  in  the  Field  381 

stand  shipment.  It  is  ordinarily  best  to  pick  the  perish- 
able fruits  early  in  the  morning,  if  they  are  dry,  and  then 
to  pack  them  up  tight  and  send  them  directly  to  the  rail- 
way station;  or,  if  they  have  become  too  warm,  or  if  it 
is  desired  to  delay  the  shipment,  they  should  be  put 
in  the  cellar  or  a  cold  storage  to  reduce  them  to  a  low  tem- 
perature. If  the  soft  fruits,  as  strawberries  and  raspberries, 
are  treated  in  this  way,  they  will  ordinarily  endure  ship- 
ment best  if  they  are  sent  in  tight,  unventilated  crates. 

Apples  ripen  very  rapidly  in  the  pile  if  they  are  exposed 
directly  to  the  rays  of  the  sun.  It  is  always  well,  therefore, 
if  they  are  piled  in  the  field,  to 
place  them  on  the  shady  side  of 
the  tree,  if  possible;  but,  no 
doubt,  the  very  best  results  in 
long-keeping  qualities  are  secured 
when  the  apples  are  taken  directly 
from  the  trees  to  a  cool  room  and 
there  kept  in  storage,  where  the 
ripening  process  is  wholly  or  parti- 
ally checked.  This  is  especially 

important  if  they  are  to  be  shipped  long  distances,  and 
particularly  if  they  are  to  be  exported.  If  the  weather  is 
cool  and  somewhat  dull  at  the  picking  time,  this  precau- 
tion is  not  so  essential  as  in  autumns  that  are  dry,  bright 
and  warm. 

Keeping  records  with  the  pickers. 

There  are  various  ways  of  keeping  accounts  with 
berry-pickers.  Perhaps  the  commonest  way  in  large 
patches  is  to  use  a  simple  ticket,  like  Fig.  146,  given  to 
the  picker  ha  exchange  for  the  berries  delivered.  There 
are  tickets  of  various'  denominations,  the  figures  repre- 


6 


382 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


senting  quarts,  so  that  any  number  of  quarts  can  be 
represented  by  combinations  of  tickets.  These  tickets  are 
so  often  lost  that  they  may  soon  come  to  be  a  nuisance, 
although  some  growers  may  not  object  to  them  for  this 
reason,  for  all  that  are  lost  do  not  have  to  be  redeemed. 
Some  growers,  therefore,  have  designed  tickets  that  can 
be  tied  to  the  person  by  a  string,  bearing  the  picker's 
name,  and  in  which  the  numbers  are  cancelled  by  a  punch. 


FIG.  147.  Picker's  tag. 


FIG.  148.  Picker's  tag. 


Two  good  styles  are  shown,  half-size,  in  Figs.  147  and  148. 
In  the  latter  are  two  styles  of  punch  marks,  representing 
different  foremen. 

Other  growers  disregard  all  ticket  systems  outright,  and 
keep  a  book  account  with  each  picker;  and,  what  is  better, 
they  pay  by  the  pound.  A  small,  flat-topped  grocers' 
scale  may  be  taken  to  the  shed  in  the  berry  field.  Each 
picker  is  numbered,  and  he  picks  in  an  eight-pound  or 
ten-pound  Climax  basket.  As  he  comes  to  the  shed,  he 


Handling  and  Grading  383 

slips  his  number  into  the  basket  on  a  bit  of  card  or  splint, 
and  he  sees  the  basket  weighed  and  the  credit  given;  or, 
if  the  picker  has  no  suspicions,  the  foreman  may  gather 
the  baskets  from  the  field. 

It  is  always  essential  that  each  picker  finish  the  particu- 
lar job  to  which  he  is  assigned.  This  is  specially  impor- 
tant in  the  small-fruits,  for  the  picker  must  follow  a  cer- 
tain row,  and  not  be  wandering  over  the  plantation  in 
search  of  the  best  picking. 

THE   GRADING   AND   PACKING   OF   FRUIT 

One  never  grades  fruit  accurately  until  he  establishes 
the  grades  in  the  mind.  One  must  first  visualize  certain 
standards,  from  which  departures  may  be  made. 

What  is  first-class  fruit? 

The  first  thing  to  be  considered  in  the  grading  and 
packing  of  fruit  is  to  determine  what  first-class  fruit  is. 
Even  amongst  those  persons  who  sell  apples  for  the 
export  trade,  there  is  very  little  exact  practice  in  the 
sorting  of  the  apples.  It  seems  to  be  ordinarily  considered 
that  any  fruit  sound  enough  to  reach  its  destination  is 
good  enough  to  be  called  first-class ;  but  such  standard  is  a 
grievous  error.  The  fruit  should  not  only  reach  its  destina- 
tion in  approximately  the  same  condition  in  which  it 
leaves  the  orchard,  but  it  should  also  be  attractive  and 
uniform  in  quality,  and  capable  of  being  held  for  some 
time  when  it  reaches  the  wholesaler.  Mere  soundness  or 
perfectness  of  form,  and  freedom  from  all  bruises  and 
blemishes,  do  not  constitute  a  first-class  sample.  All  the 
specimens  should  grade  up  to  a  more  or  less  uniform  stand- 
ard of  size  and  shape;  and  any  fruit  ever  so  perfect  in 


384  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

itself  would  not  be  considered  to  be  first  class  if  placed 
amongst  fruits  either  very  much  larger  or  very  much 
smaller.  In  other  words,  there  is  a  great  difference 
between  a  perfect  specimen  and  a  first-class  parcel. 

Perhaps  it  will  answer  all  requirements  to  define  first- 
class  fruit  as  a  quantity  of  sufficient  amount  to  be  quoted 
in  the  market  (as  one  box,  basket  or  barrel),  that  is  thor- 
oughly well  packed  and  of  one  variety,  and  in  which  the 
individual  specimens  are  very  nearly  uniform  in  size, 
shape  and  degree  of  ripeness,  are  possessed  of  full-length 
stems  (in  stem-bearing  fruits),  are  free  from  bruises  and 
injuries  and  all  insect  and  fungous  blemishes,  are  fully 
characteristic  of  the  variety,  and  are  in  that  stage  of 
maturity  that  the  market  demands  at  the  tune  of  their 
exposure  for  sale. 

The  grading. 

The  more  personal  and  local  the  market,  the  more 
exacting  that  market  is;  and  therefore  the  greater  the  atten- 
tion to  be  paid  to  the  details  of  sorting  and  grading. 

The  proper  grading  of  fruit  is  greatly  facilitated  by 
thinning  the  fruits  on  the  trees,  a  subject  that  has  received 
specific  treatment  in  Chapter  VII.  Recently,  useful 
mechanical  graders  have  been  devised,  and  used  even 
for  the  softer  tree  fruits.  They  are  to  be  considered 
when  different  sizes  are  to  be  made  in  the  same  grade. 
The  recent  laws  to  regulate  grades  and  packages  will 
necessarily"  demand  more  attention  to  the  sizes  in  the 
pack. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  if  fruit  is  sorted,  two 
grades  will  result, — the  first-class  grade  and  the  remainder. 
In  small-fruits,  these  two  grades — known  as  the  firsts 
and  the  seconds — usually  comprise  the  entire  crop,  and 


Grading  the  Fruit 


385 


the  same  may  be  true  of  tree-fruits  that  have  been  well 
grown  and  rigorously  thinned.  In  most  cases,  however, 
tree-fruits  are  made  into  three  grades,  the  third  grade 
being  known  as 
culls.  Persons  who 
sort  their  fruit  as 
carefully  as  our 
definition  requires 
will  do  well  to  desig- 
nate  the  first 
grade  by  some  spe- 
cial name  or  mark, 
as  "Selected," 
"First  Choice,"  and 
the  like,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the 
common  type  of  so- 
called  first-class 
fruit.  In  such 
thorough  sorting, 
four  grades  are 
often  necessary 
properly  to  present 
the  fruit  to  the 
various  types  of  con- 
sumers. It  should 
be  remarked,  how- 
ever, that  the  better  the  fruit  as  it  hangs  on  the  tree  or 
vine,  the  fewer  will  be  the  grades  in  the  packing-house. 

The  packing  of  fruit,  therefore,  comprises  two  rather 
distinct  elements, — the  sorting  or  grading  (which  has  now 
been  considered),  and  the  placing  of  the  fruits  in  the  final 
receptacles,  or  packing  proper,  to  which  we  now  proceed. 


FIG.  149.  Various  types  of  fruit  packages. 


386 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


The  packages. 

Some  of  the  many  forms  of  packages  for  fruits  are 
shown  in  the  pictures.  These  are: 

Fig.  149. — No.  1,  common  quart  berry  box;  2,  the 
bottom,  in  flat;  3,  the  sides,  in  flat;  4,  5,  7,  till  baskets;  6, 
paper  basket,  set  up;  8,  oblong  quart  boxes;  9,  10,  metal- 
topped  baskets;  11,  bushel  basket  with  slat  cover;  12, 
common  splint  peach  basket;  13,  same,  with  cover. 

Fig.  150. — No.  1,  veneer  peach  basket;  2,  standard 
peach  basket;  3,  veneer  straight-sided  basket;  4,  vege- 
table basket;  5, 
California  peaches, 
wrapped  in  paper; 
6,  a  frequent  result 
in  the  market ;  7-1 1 , 
various  styles  of 
Climax  baskets;  12, 
13,basketsforapple- 
picking  (the  illustra- 
tion also  shows  same 
number  of  apples  in 
each  basket  or  pile, 
but  those  in  13 
from  sprayed  trees, 
those  in  12  from 
untreated  trees). 

Fig.  151.— No. 
1,  Diamond  market 
basket;  2,  16-pint 
basket  -  tray ;  3-9, 
various  styles  of 
crates  for  berry 

FIG.  150.  Various  types  of  baskets. 


The  Packages  for  Fruits 


387 


Fig.  152. — No.  1,  crate  for  Leslie  boxes;  2, 4-quart  hand- 
tray;  3, 24-quart  crate;  4,  till-basket  crate;  5,  6,  fruit  boxes 
(holding  from  %  to  1  bus.);  7,  the  bushel  handling  box;  8, 
patent  fruit  barrel;  9,  High- 
cliffe  patent  barrel  for  export 
apples  (arranged  to  be  sawn 
in  two  without  disturbing 
the  fruit). 

Of  the  peach-basket  type 
there  are  many  varieties.  Fig. 
153  shows  two  of  them,  the 
upper  one  being  the  "New 
York"  basket  and  the  lower 
one  the  "Jersey"  basket. 
Covers  or  hoods  are  shown 
in  Fig.  154.  The  shipper's 
half-bushel,  a  very  handy 
package  for  firm  fruits 
handled  loose,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  155.  Other  forms  of 
carriers  are  displayed  in  Fig. 

156.  The  bushel  box  (Fig.  157)  is  standard,  and  is  used 
for  a  great  variety  of  purposes.  In  Fig.  158  is  seen  the 
crate  used  in  Hawaii  for  shipping  papayas  (Higgins  and 
Holt),  each  fruit  being  in  a  separate  carton. 

It  is  well  nigh  useless  to  try  to  make  specific  remarks 
about  the  packages  used  for  fruits,  because  so  much 
depends  on  the  particular  grade  of  the  fruit  and  the  way 
in  which  it  is  shipped  and  handled;  very  much  also  depends 
on  the  demands  of  the  given  market.  It  is  an  excellent 
plan  for  the  fruit-grower  to  visit  markets  in  advance  of 
the  ripening  of  his  crop,  and  to  determine  just  what  style 
of  package  his  market  will  most  appreciate.  When  fruits 


388 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


are  pooled,  or  shipped  through  exchanges  or  unions,  it 
is  imperative  that  a  uniform  style  of  package  be 
used;  but  when  a  man  handles  fruit  solely  on  his  own 
account,  and  has  a  superior  quality,  he  may  often  adver- 
tise his  product  by  a  unique  package,  or  at  least  by  one 
that  is  unlike  those  in  most  common  use.  Such  a  package 

singles  him  out  from 
his  neighbors,  and 
answers  as  a  trade- 
mark for  his  product. 
The  writer  has  known 
profitable  returns  to 
be  secured  from  fruit 
shipped  in  colored 
baskets.  A  dye  was 
made  of  aniline,  and 
the  baskets  were 
dipped  into  the  kettle 
(being  handled  with  a 
pitchfork),  and  fruit 
no  better  than  the 
ordinary  run  brought 
several  cents  a  basket 
more  than  that  packed 
in  the  ordinary  white  package.  This  will  not  often  suc- 
ceed, however,  but  this  example  is  given  to  show  that  a 
package  somewhat  out  of  the  ordinary  may  be  desirable 
for  a  person  to  use  for  special  trade. 

In  all  the  finest  fruits  the  grower  should  use  nothing 
but  a  gift  package,  one  that  is  given  away  with  the  fruit. 
This  insures  a  clean  and  dainty  parcel,  and  the  pur- 
chaser is  not  bothered  with  the  thought  of  returning  it.  In 
a  good  market,  a  package  that  has  been  previously  used 


FIG.  152.  Crates  and  barrels. 


The  Packages 


389 


is  a  detriment.    In  many  cases,  it  is  the  packing  and  the 
package  that  sells  the  fruit,  as  much  as  the  fruit  itself. 

When  fruits  are  sold  by  the  definite  quantity,  as  by  the 
quart,  the  peck  or  the  bushel,  the  packages  should  be  full 
measure.  It  sometimes  happens  that  for  a  time  a  man 
secures  as  much  for  a  short  or  "snide"  package  as  for 
one  of  full  measure;  but  such  person 
can  scarcely  expect  to  hold  a  superior 
trade  for  a  great  length  of  time.  The 
laws  are  now  en- 
forcing full-measure 
packages. 


FIG.  153.   Peach- 
basket  forms. 


FIG.  154.     Peach- 
basket  covers. 


FIG.  155.  The  half -bushel 
shipping-basket. 


One  of  the  standard  packages  for  grapes,  peaches  and 
apricots  is  the  Climax  basket,  made  in  various  styles  and 
sizes.  Some  of  the  common  forms  are  shown  in  Fig.  150, 
Nos.  7-11.  These  are  made  in  sizes  holding  five  to  ten  or 
twelve  pounds  of  fruit.  They  are  handy,  cheap,  nest  well 
in  the  shipment,  and  are  durable.  A  good  basket  of  any 
kind  should  be  neatly  made,  with  no  splinters  or  tag-ends 
hanging  from  it,  which  is  firm  and  symmetrical  in  shape, 
well  nailed,  and  perfectly  clean  or  white  in  appearance. 
Baskets  become  yellow  and  discolored  if  they  are  left  in 
the  sun;  therefore,  when  they  are  stored,  they  should  be 
placed  in  a  clean  and  dark  dry  loft  or  room.  If  packages 
left  over  from  the  last  year  are  somewhat  dingy,  it  is  some- 
times possible  to  bleach  them  by  burning  a  little  sulfur 
in  the  room. 


390 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


The  grower,  then,  will  begin  some  months  in  advance 
to  look  up  the  packages,  for  he  will  thereby  not  only  suit 

himself  and  the  market, 
but  he  will  likely  be  able 
to  secure  his  packages  at 
a  lower  cost;  and  he  will, 
hi  any  event,  be  sure  of 
his  packages  in  case 
there  should  be  a  large 
demand  for  them  at 
marketing  time.  It  is 
well  to  secure  the  illus- 
trated price-lists  of  the 
manufacturers,  and  to 
canvass  the  subjects  of 
styles  and  prices. 

All  packages  smaller 
than  a  half -peck  should 
be  shipped  in  crates.  It 
is  customary  to  use  crates 
with  slat  sides  and  many  openings,  to  insure  complete 
ventilation;  but,  if  the  fruits  are  firm  and  dry  when  they 
are  picked  and  are  then  reduced  to  a  lower  temperature, 
they  may  be  shipped  in  unventilated  crates,  usually  with 
better  results.  The 
shriveling  and  shrink- 
age of  the  fruits  will  be 
less  in  the  tight  crates, 
and  decay  will  ordina- 
rily be  less  also.  These 
crates  may  be  gift  pack- 
ages, and  made  of  light 

Split  Stuff.  Fia.  157.  The  bushel  box. 


FIG.  156.  Carriers.  Top,  twenty-four- 
pint  crate;  middle,  four-basket  carrier  or 
crate;  bottom,  sixteen-quart  crate. 


The  Gift  Package 


391 


Crates  designed  to  be  returned  to  the  grower  are  usually 
heavy,  are  commonly  made  of  sawed  stuff,  and  are  pro- 
vided with  hinges  and  clasps.  In  shipping  long  distances 
by  rail,  large  crates  (holding  as  many  as  sixty  baskets  or 
cups)  are  usually  preferable,  as  there  is  less  "side  shake," 
because  of  the  greater 
bulk;  and  such  heavy 
packages  may  not  be  so 
carelessly  handled  as  are 
the  small  ones. 

The  time  is  coming 
when  all  the  better 
grades  and  higher  quali- 
ties of  fruits  will  be  put 
up  in  special  gift  pack- 
ages, and  the  time  can- 
not be  far  distant  when 
pasteboard  boxes  will  be 
used  to  some  extent. 
One  of  the  most  marked 
results  of  the  recent  ad- 
vancement and  competi- 
tion in  the  manufacture 
of  products  is  the  pack- 
ing of  single  articles  in  tasty  boxes.  Boots  and  shoes,  for 
example,  were  once  shipped  loose  in  large  cases,  while  now, 
in  all  the  better  grades,  every  pair  is  boxed  by  itself.  In 
other  words,  not  only  is  the  product  itself  a  finished  article, 
but  it  is  packed  in  a  dainty  and  finished  way;  and  the 
same  must  come  to  be  true  of  many  of  the  better 
kinds  of  agricultural  products. 

In  the  fanciest  fruits,  as  the  best  dessert  pears,  and 
even  some  of  the  largest  and  finest  strawberries,  it  is  often 


FIG.  158.  Papaya  crates,  Hawaii. 


392  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

profitable  to  ship  in  cases  something  like  those  used  for 
eggs,  in  which  each  individual  fruit  has  a  compartment  or 
receptacle  of  its  own.  If,  in  addition,  the  fruit  is  carefully 
wrapped  in  these  compartments,  the  very  finest  type  of 
packing  will  result. 

How  to  pack. 

The  method  of  packing  must  depend  very  greatly  on 
the  market  to  be  reached,  on  the  quality  of  the  fruit,  and 
the  package  to  be  used.  Ordinarily,  women  are  better 
fruit-packers  than  men,  especially  for  the  delicate  fruits, 
as  peaches,  the  berries  and  grapes.  Each  individual  fruit 
or  cluster  should  be  placed  in  the  package  separately  and 
by  hand.  This  is  emphatically  true  of  all  the  tender  and 
perishable  dessert  fruits.  The  specimens  are  ordinarily 
laid  in  concentric  rows,  the  first  row  being  placed  on  the 
outside  of  the  bottom  of  the  basket,  and  other  circles 
filling  in  the  layer  until  it  is  full.  Other  tiers  are  then 
placed  in  the  same  way.  The  top  layer  is  placed  with 
special  care,  the  stems  of  the  fruits  being  all  laid  one  way, 
and  the  same  side  of  the  fruit  (ordinarily  the  cheek)  show- 
ing uppermost.  The  top  of  the  basket  should  present  a 
uniform  and  finished  appearance,  and  should  be  slightly 
rounding  or  oval  in  shape.  There  will  ordinarily  be  a 
difference  of  10  to  30  cents  a  basket  between  good  plums 
or  peaches  sent  to  the  market  as  they  are  picked  from  the 
tree,  and  those  properly  packed  and  finished  up.  Whether 
the  extra  sale  price  pays  will  depend,  of  course,  on  the 
extra  cost  of  the  careful  packing;  and  this  cost  will  be 
determined  not  only  by  the  price  of  labor  but  also  by  the 
care  with  which  the  fruit  is  grown,  the  quantity,  the  train- 
ing of  the  packers  and  the  facilities  at  their  disposal.  One 
gains  reputation  as  well  as  extra  sales-price  from  carefully 
packed  fruits. 


The  Packing 


393 


When  packing  apples  and  pears  in  kegs  or  barrels,  it 
is  not  always  necessary  to  place  every  individual ;  and  yet, 
if  the  packages  are  to  go  abroad,  it  is  ordinarily  best  to 
take  this  pains,  laying  all  the  fruits  in  tiers,  for  thereby 
there  is  tight  packing  and  little  shrinkage;  and  when  one 
handles  his  fruit  so  carefully  he  is  constantly  throwing 
out  the  inferior  samples.  As  apples  are  ordinarily  handled 
for  our  domestic  trade,  however,  they  are  faced  only 
on  the  two  ends.  They  ought  always  to  be  faced  on  one 


FIG.  159.  Well-packed  Esopus 
Spitzenburg  apples,  removed  from 
storage  in  March. 


FIG.  160.  "Slack"-packed  North- 
ern Spy  apples  removed  from  stor- 
age in  March. 


end.  This  facing  is  done  by  choosing  apples  of  uniform 
grade  and  placing  them  in  concentric  rows  on  the  lower 
head  or  end  of  the  barrel.  About  two  or  three  tiers  should 
be  faced,  the  rings  of  one  tier  breaking  joints  with  those 
of  another.  The  stem-end  should  point  toward  the  head 
of  the  barrel.  The  apples  in  the  middle  of  the  barrel  may 
be  turned  in  from  a  round-bottomed  swing-handle  basket, 
that  can  be  let  directly  into  the  barrel  (or  from  a  smaller 
basket  that  will  turn  in  the  barrel),  and  after  every  basket 
is  emptied  the  barrel  should  be  lightly  shaken  to  settle  the 
fruits.  It  is  advisable  to  face  the  upper  end  of  the  barrel 
before  the  head  is  placed  in,  but  this  is  not  always  done. 


394  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

The  barrel  is  ordinarily  headed  up,  then  ended  over,  and 
the  opposite  or  originally  faced  end  is  stenciled,  and  this  is 
the  end  that  the  dealer  is  supposed  to  open.  It  fre- 
quently happens,  however,  that  the  dealer,  in  order  to 
test  the  packing,  opens  the  other  or  unintended  end  of 
the  barrel;  and  in  selling  large  lots  of  apples,  two  or  three 
barrels  are  sometimes  used  as  samples,  and  the  entire 
contents  are  rolled  out  on  the  packing-house  or  auction- 
room  floor.  A  barrel  of  winter  apples  properly  faced  and 
packed  is  shown  in  Fig.  159,  just  as  it  was  opened  in 
cold  storage  in  March;  a  barrel  of  "slacks"  is  shown  in 
Fig.  160. 

The  greatest  care  should  be  taken  in  the  packing  of 
apples  for  export,  because  they  are  subjected  to  long  and 
trying  transportation,  the  freight  and  incidental  rates  are 
high,  and  only  the  best  fruits  will  pay  transportation 
and  other  expenses.  One  reason  why  the  foreign  market 
has  sometimes  been  so  poor  for  American  apples  is  because 
a  great  quantity  of  poorly  sorted  and  poorly  packed  fruit 
has  been  exported.  The  following  suggestions  for  the 
exporting  of  apples  are  condensed  from  a  report  made  by 
George  T.  Powell,  to  the  New  York  Commissioner  of 
Agriculture,  and  will  be  found  to  be  very  useful: 

Kind  of  fruit  wanted. — Only  good  fruit  is  wanted  abroad. 
The  fruit-grower  should  begin  months  in  advance  to  secure  good 
quality,  by  practicing  good  tillage,  efficient  fertilizing  and  thorough 
spraying.  Apples  grown  on  trees  which  have  imperfect  (insect-eaten 
and  fungus-infested)  foliage  generally  fail  to  carry  in  good  condi- 
tion to  Europe.  Standard  fall  and  winter  varieties  are  most  in 
demand  in  the  export  trade.  Duchess  and  Twenty  Ounce  generally 
sell  well  if  picked  while  hard.  Alexander  is  too  soft.  Baldwin, 
Greening,  Spy,  King,  Spitzenburg,  Hubbardston  (Nonsuch),  New- 
town  (Pippin),  Peck's  Pleasant  and  late  Russets  are  popular  varie" 
ties.  Jonathan  and  other  medium-sized  apples  are  especially  desired. 


The  Packing  of  Fruit  395 

Red  apples  sell  better  than  solid  green  ones,  as  a  rule.  Soft  summer 
varieties  do  not  ship  well. 

Picking  the  fruit. — Apples  intended  for  export  should  be  picked 
earlier  than  for  the  home  trade,  but  not  when  green  and  immature. 
It  is  largely  the  beauty  of  the  American  apple  which  sells  it;  there- 
fore, the  color  should  be  well  advanced  before  the  apple  is  picked. 
Hand-pick  the  finest  very  carefully.  It  is  advisable  to  barrel  and 
ship  as  soon  as  picked,  rather  than  to  store  the  fruit  for  some  days 
in  piles  in  the  orchard. 

Packing. — Sort  carefully.  Very  fine  fruit  should  be  marked 
"Fancy"  or  "Selected,"  with  four  X's  (XXXX),  and  with  the 
grower's  or  shipper's  name  or  initials.  The  second  grade  should  be 
good,  and  marked  with  three  X's.  Nothing  lower  than  this  should 
be  exported.  The  English  law  requires  that  the  package  be  plainly 
marked  "American  Produce."  Use  only  standard-size  barrels.  Put 
in  a  double  row  of  facers.  Apples  somewhat  soft  in  texture,  like 
Greenings,  may  be  pressed  down  a  full  inch  in  barreling,  but  hard 
apples  should  not  be  squeezed  so  much.  Nail  the  barrels  securely. 
If  the  apples  become  loose  in  transit,  they  will  be  very  much  injured. 

Methods  of  sale. — Apples  are  sold  in  the  English  markets  by 
sample.  Two  barrels  of  a  lot  are  selected,  one  opened  to  show  the 
packing,  the  other  turned  out  so  that  every  apple  can  be  seen.  The 
lot  is  then  sold  at  auction.  The  first  day  of  sale  they  are  sold  as 
"sound."  These  are  delivered  within  twenty-four  hours.  Any  loose 
barrels,  known  as  "slacks"  or  "slack-packed,"  and  any  from  which 
the  juice  is  running,  called  "wets,"  are  closed  out  at  the  succeed- 
ing sale. 

Fruits  intended  for  the  dessert  may  often  be  put  into 
the  consumer's  hands  in  superior  condition  by  wrapping 
them  in  soft  grocer's  paper,  of  the  kind  ordinarily  called 
tea-paper,  or,  when  the  product  is  especially  choice,  and 
the  grower  has  a  large  quantity,  it  may  pay  him  to  use  a 
grade  of  tissue-paper.  There  are  many  middlemen  who  prac- 
tise this  careful  packing,  and  growers  may  often  imitate 
them  with  profit.  With  pears  or  apples,  the  inside  of  the 
keg  or  barrel  is  lined  with  newspapers  or  other  grades,  and 
each  fruit  is  individually  wrapped  in  soft  manila  paper.  Such 


396 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


fruits  may  be  expected  to  carry  thousands  of  miles  without 
perceptible  injury.  When  opened,  their  aroma  is  such  that 
no  well-bred  consumer  can  resist  the  temptation  of  a 


$o\\o«*  Twt  KX\,<U\«  T.tt 

FIG.  161.  The  three  tiers  or  layers  of  the  2x2  diamond  pack. 

good  price.     Ordinary  fruits,   however,   are  not  worth 
this  care. 

It  is  important  that  all  fruit  should  be  packed  very 
snug,  especially  that  which  is  to  be  shipped  any  distance 
in  barrels  or  other  large  packages.  Fruit  that  is  '  'slack" 
when  it  reaches  the  market  is  nearly  always  injured,  and 
sells  as  second-  or  third-quality  product.  This  slacking  or 
shaking  in  barrels  may  be  prevented  by  using  fruits  not 
over-ripe,  by  careful  attention  to  grading,  so  that  all  the 
specimens  are  of  uniform  maturity,  by  keeping  the  product 
cool  after  it  is  packed,  and  especially  by  placing  the  fruits 
in  the  package  by  hand.  Barrels  of 
apples  and  pears  should  ordinarily  be 
filled  about  an  inch  above  the  chine, 
and  the  fruit  should  be  pressed  in  with 
a  screw-  or  lever-press  until  the  head 
comes  into  place.  If  the  fruits  are 

FIG.  162.   End  view  of  •  <•    ,  i  i  • 

Fig.  161.  wrapped  in  paper,  or  if  the  package  is 


Packing  the  Fruit 


397 


lined  with  several  thicknesses  of  paper,  the  spring  of  the 
paper  itself  will  take  up  the  slack  and  will  keep  the  fruit 
in  place;  and  in  such  cases  it  is  not  necessary  to  apply 
heavy  pressure  in  the  heading  up  of  the  barrel. 


FIQ.  163.  The  three  tiers  of  the  3  x  2  diamond  pack. 

On  the  best  brands  of  fruit,  a  trade-mark  is  often 
important.  Some  neat  pictorial  design,  with  the  name 
of  the  grower  and  a  statement  to  the  effect  that  the  fruit 
is  guaranteed  to  be  as  represented,  attracts  the  eye  of  the 
purchaser  and  gives  him  confidence  in  the  article;  but  to 
put  a  trade-mark  on  fruit  of  indifferent  or  even  of  ordinary 
quality  is  little  more  than  a  travesty.  If  a  man  uses 
a  trade-mark,  he  must  expect,  of  course,  to  handle  his 
own  produce,  or  at  least  to  see  that  it  reaches  the  market 
under  his  own  name.  The  fruit-buyers  who  travel  through 
the  country  for  apples  and  other  pro- 
duce ordinarily  pay  little  attention  to 
the  trade-mark  of  the  grower,  but  put 
their  own  mark  on  the  package.  If 
one  really  grows  a  good  quality  of 
fruit,  it  will  commonly  pay  him  to 

J         . J  FIG.  164.  End  view  of 

give    his  farm    an    attractive    name,  Fig.  163. 


398 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


To?  T\«. 
Fia.  165.  The  two  tiers  of  the  2  x  1  diamond  pack. 

which  can  go  on  the  labels.   Every  effort  should  be  made 
to  put  up  the  article  as  a  finished  product. 

Very  much  of  the  success  of  any  fruit  in  the  market 
depends  on  how  it  is  grown  as  well  as  how  it  is  handled. 
There  may  even  be  a  difference  in  the  salableness  of  sam- 
ples of  fruit  that  are  to  all  appearances  alike.  It  is  now 


FIG.  166.  The  square  peach  pack. 


The  Pack 


399 


common  opinion,  for  example,  that  apples  from  trees 
that  have  been  thoroughly  sprayed  and  well  tilled  are 
better  keepers  than  those  of  similar  size  and  appearance 


FIG.  167.  Packing-table  for  fruit. 

grown  on  neglected  trees.  When  fruits  are  to  be  shipped 
to  any  distance,  it  is  important  that  the  tillage  and  gen- 
eral care  of  the  fruit-plantation  should  have  been  the  best. 
Several  forms  of  fancy  pack  are  shown  in  the  illus- 
trations. For  the 
East,  Close  and 
Ballard  have  given 
good  directions 
(Md.  Bull.  No. 
159):  Fig.  161  is  the 
2x2  diamond  pack 
in  three  tiers  packed 
in  the  baskets  of 
the  Georgia  carrier, 
and  Fig.  162  is  the 
end  view;  Fig.  163 
is  the  3x2  dia- 
mond pack  in  three 

FIG.  168.  The  straight  and  diagonal  packs  of  , .  •       i_      i  f 

Oregon  cherries.  tiers,  in  baskets   of 


400 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


FIG.  169.  Apples  unwrapped  and  in  tissue, 
parchment  and  wax  wrappers. 


the  Georgia  carrier,  and  Fig.  164  is  the  end  view  of  it; 

Fig.  165  is  the  2x1  two-tier  diamond  pack  in  the  same 

carrier;  Fig.  166  is 
the  square  pack  in 
one  of  the  Georgia 
baskets;  Fig.  167 
is  a  packing-table. 
The  straight  and 
diagonal  packs  of 
Oregon  cherries  are 
shown  in  Fig.  168 
(Lewis  and  Brown). 
Wrapped  and  un- 
wrapped apples 
box-packed  are  dis- 
played in  Fig.  169. 

Box-packing  of  fruits. 

Western  apples  and  pears  are  packed  in  boxes  of  about 
one  bushel  in  capacity  (Fig.  170),  and  much  interest 
has  recently  been  aroused  in  this  subject  in  the  East.  It 
seems  to  be  the  prevailing  opinion  in  the  eastern  apple 
regions  that  the  boxing  of  apples  pays  only  for  special 
markets  and  special  varieties,  and  that  the  barrel  is  still 
the  most  profitable  package  for  the  main  commercial  trade. 
Varieties  grown  for  a  home- 
market  trade  may  be 
packed  in  boxes  with  good 
financial  results,  particu- 
larly when  the  fruit  is  un- 
usually good  and  uniform. 
The  uniformity  of  the  crop, 
as  to  size,  shape  and  color, 
is  very  important.  FIO.  170.  The  apple-box. 


Boxing  Apples  401 

The  methods  of  box-packing  have  been  well  described 
by  C.  S.  Wilson  (Cornell  Bull.  No.  298),  from  a  study  of 
both  western  and  eastern  conditions.  He  writes  as  follows: 

Two  sizes  of  boxes  are  used  in  the  West,  the  standard  and  the 
special.  These  differ  slightly  in  width  and  height  (l/%  inch)  as  well  as 
in  length,  which  adapts  them  to  the  different  sizes  of  apples.  If, 
therefore,  an  apple,  because  of  its  size,  will  not  pack  well  in  one  size 
of  box,  it  certainly  will  pack  in  the  other.  Most  of  the  western 
growers  have  a  supply  of  both  sizes  on  hand. 

The  dimensions  of  these  boxes  are: 

(a)  Standard,  10^  by  11^  by  18  inches,  inside  measurement. 

(b)  Special,  10  by  11  by  20  inches,  inside  measurement. 

The  ends  %  inch;  sides,  %  inch;  top  and  bottoms,  two  pieces 
each,  34  inch  thick.  There  should  be  four  cleats  for  each  box,  two 
at  the  top  and  two  at  the  bottom.  The  sides  of  the  box  should  be 
nailed  with  four  nails  at  each  end  of  each  side.  The  cleats  should  be 
put  neatly  on  the  box  and  four  nails  driven  through  them  and 
through  the  top  or  bottom  into  the  ends.  Cement-coated  or  rosined 
nails  are  preferable,  either  six-penny  or  five-penny.  A  few  other  sizes 
differing  from  those  mentioned  above  are  sold  by  manufacturers  in 
the  East.  Odd  sizes,  however,  should  be  avoided.  The  boxes  are 
delivered  in  the  shocks  and  nailed  up  by  the  growers  themselves. 

Lining. — The  box  is  lined  on  the  bottom,  sides  and  top  with  a 
white  paper  called  "lining  paper."  No  lining  is  placed  at  the  ends. 
Lining  paper  is  made  from  "white  news"  in  different  sizes,  accord- 
ing to  the  box — for  the  standard,  17%  by  26  inches,  and  for  the 
special,  19%  by  26  inches.  This  paper  can  be  purchased  of  any  whole- 
sale paper  dealer,  and  should  cost  approximately  3%  cents  per 
pound,  or  about  $1.20  per  thousand  sheets. 

One  piece  of  lining  paper  is  put  into  the  box  in  such  a  way  as  to 
cover  a  little  more  than  one-half  of  the  bottom  and  all  of  one  side, 
enough  still  being  left  to  fold  over  a  little  beyond  the  center  when  the 
box  is  packed.  Another  piece  is  put  into  the  box  in  a  similar  way  on 
the  other  side.  In  order  to  prevent  the  tearing  of  the  lining  paper 
along  the  sides  at  the  bottom,  when  the  top  is  nailed  on  and  the 
bottom  bulges,  a  plait  or  crease  is  made  in  the  lining  paper  at  this 
place.  The  plaits  lie  across  the  corners  and  provide  plenty  of  slack. 
In  the  West  some  growers  plait  the  lining  in  this  manner;  others  do 


402 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


not.  Layer  papers  are  also  used,  commonly  one  sheet  on  the  bottom 
and  one  on  the  top,  inside  the  lining  paper. 

Wrapping. — Most  growers  in  the  West  wrap  every  apple.  To 
wrap  the  fruit,  the  packer  stands  at  the  table  so  that  he  can  pick  up 
an  apple  with  one  hand  and  place  it  in  the  box  with  the  other.  The 
wrapping  paper  is  held  in  a  hod  which  hangs  on  the  side  of  the  box. 

(Shown  in  Fig.  172).  To 
pick  up  a  sheet  of  wrap- 
ping paper  easily,  the 
packer  wears  a  rubber  stall 
on  the  thumb  or  middle 
finger.  These  rubber  stalls 
can  be  purchased  at 
almost  any  drug  -  store. 
With  the  left  hand  the 
packer  reaches  for  a  sheet 
of  paper;  at  the  same 
time  with  the  right  hand 
he  picks  up  an  apple.  The 
apple  is  thrown  gently 
into  the  center  of  the 
paper,  which  is  held  in 
the  palm  of  the  left  hand. 
With  the  right  hand  the 
packer  draws  in  the  corners 
of  the  paper,  and  then, 
with  a  slight  rolling 
motion,  completes  the 
wrapping,  and  in  so  doing 
leaves  the  apple  in  the 
left  hand  in  the  proper 
position  to  pack  in  the 
box.  The  illustrations  (Fig.  171)  show  successive  steps  in  the 
operation.  The  operation,  however,  being  an  individual  matter, 
will  differ  somewhat  with  each  packer.  In  every  case  the  object 
should  be  to  make  a  neat  and  attractive  wrap,  and  do  it  quickly. 

Packing-table. — A  convenient  packing-table  can  be  easily  built 
by  any  grower.  A  good  type  is  shown  in  Fig.  172.  The  bed  of  the 
table  is  3  by  4  feet,  covered  by  a  double  layer  of  canvas.  In  order 
to  enable  the  packer  to  shake  off  quickly  any  dirt  or  leaves  which 


FIG.  171.  Successive  stages  in  the  wrapping 
of  an  apple. 


Boxing  Apples 


403 


may  gather,  the  top  layer  is  fastened  at  one  end  only.  Each  end  of 
the  table  is  extended  about  1  foot  on  which  to  rest  one  end  of  the 
box.  As  a  rest  for  the  other  end  a  board  projecting  about  1  foot  at 
the  side  is  fastened  to  the  bottom  of  the  bed.  These  supports  for 
the  boxes  are  built  at  alternate  corners  of  the  table.  Shelves  on 
which  to  place  wrapping  paper,  lining  paper,  or  layer  paper  are  often 
built  beneath  the  table. 


Fia.  172.  Packing-table. 

A  box-press  may  be  devised  in  various  ways,  the  essential  points 
of  construction  being:  (a)  to  rest  the  box  on  the  ends  so  that  when 
the  top  is  nailed  down  the  bottom  is  free  to  bulge  also;  (6)  to  catch 
and  press  down  the  top  pieces  from  the  ends  so  that  a  minimum 
bruising  will  result.  A  convenient  press  is  shown  in  diagram  Fig. 
173.  The  box  lies  across  the  open  space  in  the  center,  the  pieces 
being  caught  and  clamped  at  the  end  by  the  arms.  This  press  is 
built  for  boxes  of  different  lengths.  Many  other  types  of  box-presses 
have  been  made,  and  are  equally  efficient  and  convenient. 

Following  is  the  description  of  the  box-press  shown  in  Fig.  173. 

1.  Cover  boards  to  table.    Length  of  table,  64  inches;  2.  Side 


404 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


board  to  table;  3.  Uprights  for  attachment  of  levers  (5  and  9);  4. 
Legs  of  table  28}^  inches  long,  1^  inches  square.  (All  the  arms, 
legs  and  levers  of  the  press  may  be  made  of  1  ^  by  1 3/£-inch  material) ; 
5.  Levers,  27  inches  long;  6.  Upright  arms,  32  inches  long;  7.  Steel 
springs.  Small  screen-door  springs  may  be  used;  8.  Spring  attached 
to  upright  arm  (6)  and  support  (3) ;  9.  Foot  lever,  bolted  to  uprights 
(3)  at  back,  and  working  with  catch  plate  and  ratchet  in  front.  It  is 
fastened  to  plate  (13);  10.  Brace  for  legs  and  lower  support  for 
uprights,  3  inches  from  ground;  11.  Horseshoe  plate  for  gripping 


Fro.  173.  A  box-press. 


box  cleats  and  cover;  12.  Iron  plates  bolted  to  levers  (5),  with  large 
holes  in  projecting  ends,  allowing  the  bolts  (16)  to  slide  freely;  13. 
Lower  plate  under  lever  (9),  to  which  it  is  bolted  loosely,  with  large 
holes  in  each  end  for  free  play  for  bolts  (16);  14.  Side  plate  joining 
lever  (5)  and  arm  (6).  Loose  joint;  15.  Iron  ratchet  to  engage  plate 
on  the  front  lever  (9);  16.  Half-inch  bolts,  2^  inches  long,  working 
loosely  in  the  holes  in  the  plates  (12  and  13);  17.  Three  small  pulleys 
for  rope  attached  to  arms  (6) ;  18.  Strong  J^-inch  cord  that  will  not 
stretch;  19.  Spanner  running  parallel  with  side;  20.  Cross-pieces, 
providing  support  for  box;  21.  Grooves  for  holding  box  in  place. 
They  are  a  trifle  over  18  inches  apart. 


Boxing  Apples  405 

Packing. — Before  placing  the  apples  on  the  packing-table  they 
are  usually  graded  into  different  sizes.  The  grading  is  done  by  men 
who  are  trained  for  the  work.  They  take  the  fruit  from  the  boxes 
as  it  comes  to  the  packing-house  from  the  orchard  and  grade  it  into 
different  sizes.  It  is  then  placed  on  a  table,  where  it  is  ready  for  the 
packer.  For  growers  in  the  East  who  are  beginners  it  may  be  help- 
ful to  use  a  sizer  or  "grader"  at  first.  This  consists  of  a  thin  board 
through  which  holes  of  the  correct  diameter  have  been  made.  Begin- 
ning with  the  smallest,  the  diameter  of  the  holes  should  be:  2% 
inches  for  the  5-tier  pack.  2^  inches  for  the  4 Y^- tier  pack,  2%  inches 
for  the  4-tier  pack,  3^g  inches  for  the  3^-tier  pack,  and  3%  inches 
for  the  3-tier  pack.  The  sizer  should  be  placed  in  a  convenient  posi- 
tion so  that  an  apple  can  be  quickly  dropped  through  it  if  the  man, 
who  is  grading,  is  in  doubt  as  to  the  size  of  any  apple.  The  eye 
of  the  attentive  operator  is  soon  trained,  however,  to  distinguish  the 
different  sizes. 

The  packer  adapts  the  pack  to  the  size  of  the  apple  and  the  box. 
Two  kinds  of  packs  are  commonly  used  in  the  West,  the  diagonal 
and  the  straight.  They  are  the  3}^-  and  4}^-tier,  the  3  Y^- tier  being 
the  more  common.  The  apples  for  this  pack  are  too  large  for  four 
straight  across  and  too  small  for  three  straight  across.  They  are 
packed,  therefore,  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  and  the  pack  is 
called  a  "33^-tier."  To  start  this,  one  apple  is  placed  in  the  corner 
and  another  against  the  end  in  the  middle  of  the  remaining  width. 
The  next  two  apples,  alternating  with  the  first  two,  are  set  firmly 
down  into  the  intervening  spaces,  and  so  on  until  the  layer  is  packed. 
The  number  of  apples  in  the  rows  will  vary  according  to  the  size 
and  shape.  The  number  in  the  different  layers,  however,  should  be 
the  same.  The  straight  packs  are  the  3-,  4-,  and  5-tier,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  apples.  This  pack  is  made  by  placing  the  apples 
in  straight  rows  across  the  box. 

The  diagonal  pack  is  preferable  to  the  straight.  In  the  first 
place,  it  permits  of  a  wider  variation  in  the  size  of  the  apples;  with 
the  straight  pack  the  apples  must  be  more  uniform  in  order  to  fit 
exactly.  In  the  second  place,  it  permits  of  more  or  less  pressing 
without  bruising.  In  the  diagonal  pack  an  apple  rests  in  the  center 
of  the  space  between  two  or  four  others.  In  the  straight  pack  every 
apple  rests  against  the  center  of  every  other.  Hence,  when  the  top 
is  pulled  down,  a  certain  amount  of  pressing  could  take  place  in  the 
diagonal  pack  without  bruising,  whereas  in  the  straight  pack  only 


406 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


a  slight  pressing  would  bruise  the  fruit.  For  a  few  sizes  of  apples  one 
is  forced  to  use  the  straight  pack. 

The  following  table,  used  at  Hood  River,  Oregon,  in  the  fall  of 
1910,  gives  the  pack,  number  of  rows,  number  of  apples  in  the  row, 
box  to  use,  and  number  of  apples  in  the  box.  The  table  is  taken 
from  an  article  written  by  Professor  Claude  I.  Lewis,  and  published 
in  "Better  Fruit,"  September,  1910: 

TABLE  OF  COMMERCIAL  Box  PACKS 


Size,  ex- 
pressed in 
number  of 
apples  per 
box 

Tier 

Pack 

Number  of 
apples  in 
row 

Number  of 
layers  in 
depth 

Box  used 

45 

3 

3  Str. 

5^5 

3 

Standard 

54 

3 

3Str. 

6-6 

3 

Special 

63 

3 

3  Str. 

7-7 

3 

Special 

64 

31A 

2-2  Diag. 

4-4 

4 

Standard 

72 

31A 

2-2  Diag. 

4-5 

4 

Standard 

80 

31A 

2-2  Diag. 

5-5 

4 

Standard 

88 

31A 

2-2  Diag. 

5-6 

4 

Standard 

96 

31A 

2-2  Diag. 

6-6 

4 

Special 

104 

31A 

2-2  Diag. 

6-7 

4 

Special 

112 

3y2 

2-2  Diag. 

7-7 

4 

Special 

120 

3y2 

2-2  Diag. 

7-8 

'4 

Special 

128 

4 

4  Str. 

8-8 

4 

Special 

144 

4 

4  Str. 

9-9 

4 

Special 

150 

4^ 

3-2  Diag. 

6-6 

5 

Standard 

163 

±1A 

3-2  Diag. 

6-7 

5 

Standard 

175 

±1A 

3-2  Diag. 

7-7 

5 

Standard 

188 

41^ 

3-2  Diag. 

7-8 

5 

Special 

200 

±1A 

3-2  Diag. 

8-8 

5 

Special 

In  packing  it  is  not  difficult  to  come  out  even  on  top  at  the  ends. 
The  height  of  the  box  is  planned  for  this,  and  one  need  pay  very  little 
attention  to  it.  The  packer,  however,  must  plan  to  secure  the  proper 
bulge,  which  should  be  about  1J/2  inches  at  the  center.  He  should 
begin  the  bulge  with  the  first  or  second  layer,  and  may  proceed  in 
several  ways.  A  natural  and  common  way  is  to  choose  for  the  center 
of  the  box  apples  which  are  a  little  larger  or  thicker  than  the  apples 
at  the  ends.  Or,  in  case  of  flat  apples,  the  packer  may  pack  them  on 
end  at  the  ends  of  the  box  and  on  the  side  at  the  center.  With  prac- 
tice the  proper  bulge  seems  to  come  naturally,  and  the  packers  have 
very  little  difficulty  with  it. 

Whether  the  apples  are  packed  on  the  end  or  the  side  will  depend 


Boxing  Apples 


407 


on  their  shape.  They  may  be  placed  either  way,  or  even  both  ways, 
in  the  same  box,  in  order  to  secure  the  bulge  described  above.  Flat 
apples  usually  pack  more  easily  on  the  end  than  the  side,  whereas 
long  apples  pack  better  on  the  side. 

When  the  box  has  been  packed,  it  is  taken  from  the  table  to  the 
press  and  the  top  nailed  on.  When  the  top  is  nailed,  a  bulge  of  1 3^ 
inches  at  the  center  gives  %  inch  on  both  top  and  bottom.  The 
bulging  of  the  top  and  bottom  in  this  manner  acts  as  a  spring  to 
take  up  any  slack  or  shrinkage  during  transportation.  When  the 


Fia.  174.  Field-packing  of  apples  in  Missouri. 


boxes  are  piled  up  they  are  placed  on  the  side,  where  there  is  no  bulge. 
When  they  are  stored  in  this  way  no  bruising  can  result  from  the 
weight  of  one  box  above  another. 


FAKM  PACKING-HOUSES  AND  APPLIANCES 

Many  fruits  are  packed  in  the  field,  as  exhibited  in 
Fig.  174;  particularly  is  this  true  of  apples.  But  if  one 
has  any  quantity  of  fruit  and  is  to  reach  the  best  market, 
he  must  consider  the  making  of  a  packing-house  or  shed. 


408 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


The  subject  of  packing-houses  cannot  be  treated  spe- 
cifically for  each  grower.  Among  the  best  types  of  packing- 
houses are  those  used  by  the  grape  men,  and  there  are  two 
distinct  types  of  such  houses  in  use  in  the  grape  regions. 
One  type  is  a  combined  packing-  and  storage-house,  and 
is  used  very  largely  where  Catawbas  are  grown,  and  where 
the  grapes  are  often  stored  for  some  time  before  they  are 
marketed.  The  other  type  of  house  is  that  used  in  the 
Concord  regions,  and  which  is  a  half-way  station  between 
the  field  and  the  railway  station, — a  shelter  place  for  the 
packing  of  the  grapes,  and  is  not  used  for  the  storage  of 
the  fruit. 

One  of  the  best  of  the  storage  type  of  packing-houses 
(used  for  holding  the  fruit  until  whiter  or  later)  may  be 
described  as  follows: 

It  is  built  on  a  side  hill,  and  the  basement  or  cellar  is  used  for 
the  storage  of  grapes,  the  first  floor  is  used  for  packing,  and  the 
second  floor  or  attic  for  the  storage  of  baskets,  crates  and  the  like. 
This  building  measures  25  by  60  feet  over  all.  The  foundation 
walls  are  24  inches  thick,  and  the  cellar  is  provided  with  ample 

means  of  ventila- 
tion by  outside  win- 
dows, and  also  by 
means  of  a  chimney 
that  runs  from  near 
the  middle  of  the 
cellar  up  through 
the  roof.  The  floor 
is  of  earth.  By 
means  of  careful 
attention  to  ventila- 
tion, this  cellar  can 
be  kept  to  50°  or 
below  in  September 
and  October,  and  is 
frost-proof  in  win- 
FIG.  175.  A  convenient  packing-house.  ter.  The  windows 


Packing-houses 


409 


are  provided  with  close-fitting  screens,  to  keep  out  rats  and  squirrels. 
This  cellar  will  hold  easily  fifty  tons  of  grapes  in  the  picking-trays. 
The  first  floor  is  divided  into  two  rooms,  the  front  one  being  a  packing- 
room  25  feet  square, 
and  the  back  room 
being  a  storage  and 
shipping  department  25 
by  35  feet.  This  pack- 
ing-room is  provided 
with  heat,  and  is  lighted 
by  seven  large  win- 
dows. The  floor  above 
the  cellar  is  double, 
and  made  of  IJ^-inch 
matched  pine,  with  an 
abundant  air-space  be- 
tween the  two  layers. 
This,  therefore,  protects 
the  cellar  from  sudden 
fluctuations  of  tempera- 
ture. The  building  is 
also  shaded,  especially 
from  the  afternoon  sun, 


\ 


FIG.  176.  Ground-plan  of  Fig.  175. 


by  large  trees.    It  has  18-foot  posts,  a  tin  roof,  the  two  rooms  in 
the  first  floor  ceiled  with  pine,  but  the  top  floor  not  ceiled. 

The  other  type  of  packing-house  (used  only  for  pur- 
poses of  packing  and  of  storing  packages)  is  illustrated  by 
Figs.  175  and  176.  In  this  case  there  is  no  cellar,  for 
the  grapes  are  not  to  remain  in  the  house  more  than 
a  day  or  two  at  the  longest,  and  they  ordinarily  pass 
directly  through  it  on  their  way  to  the  railway  station. 
The  main  floor  of  the  building  is  24  by  40  feet,  and,  aside 
from  this,  there  is  a  driveway,  W,  under  the  same  roof, 
and  which  measures  11  by  30  feet.  This  driveway  con- 
nects with  the  main  floor  by  two  doors.  The  front  room, 
N,  which  is  lighted  by  four  windows  in  the  front  and  one 
on  the  side,  and  is  12  by  24  feet  in  size,  is  the  packing- 


410 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


room.  In  the  rear  of  this  is  a  store-room,  E,  for  the  grapes. 
The  half-story  above  is  used  for  baskets  and  crates,  and 
these  are  delivered  into  the  packing-room  by  a  shute. 
This  building  will  accommodate  ten  packers,  and  will 
easily  handle  the  grapes  from  fifty  acres. 

In  the  packing  of  grapes,  the  greatest  care  is  required 
to  keep  the  fruit  clean  and  fresh,  to  prevent  the  bunches 

from  being  broken, 
and  to  preserve  the 
bloom.  It  is  essen- 
tial that  the  house 
should  be  kept 
thoroughly  clean 
and  sweet  at  all 
times.  It  is  impor- 
tant that  the  storage- 
room  for  the  baskets 
and  crates  be  dry 
and  airy,  so  that  the 
baskets  may  not 
become  moldy  or 
musty,  and  also  well  darkened  to  prevent  the  baskets 
from  coloring. 

In  Fig.  177  is  shown  a  grape  packing-room.  The 
picking-trays  are  set  before  the  packers  upon  an  inclined 
table,  and  the  packer  handles  the  grapes  from  this  tray 
into  a  basket  that  she  places  at  her  left.  When  the  basket 
is  filled,  it  is  placed  upon  a  flat  ledge  in  front  of  her 
and  is  taken  off  by  an  attendant,  who  places  the  baskets  on 
a  truck  and  rolls  them  into  the  back  room,  from  which  they 
are  delivered  to  the  wagon.  Empty  baskets  are  stored 
upon  the  high  shelf,  and  these  are  replenished  by  an 
attendant,  as  necessary.  When  the  tray  is  empty,  it  is 


FiQ.  177.    Sorting  and  packing  grapes. 


Packing  Grapes 


411 


slid  through  an  opening  just  in  front  of  the  packer  and 
underneath  the  flat  ledge  upon  which  she  places  her 
finished  baskets.  Fig.  178  shows  another  form  of 
packing-stand.  This  is  a  circular  revolving  table,  about 
which  the  packers  sit.  The  packer  holds  the  basket  in 
her  lap,  and  takes  the  grapes  from  the  table,  which  is 


FIG.  178.  A  revolving  packing-table  for  grapes. 

turned  as  fresh  fruit  is  put  upon  it.  This  device  allows  the 
packer  to  choose  from  a  large  quantity  of  fruit. 

The  packing-house  of  a  large  commercial  orchard 
is  shown  in  Fig.  179,  and  an  interior  view  in  Fig.  180. 
The  latter  picture  is  a  peach-packing  scene. 

The  suggestions  in  the  last  few  pages  cover  most  of 
the  points  that  it  is  necessary  to  consider  in  the  construc- 
tion of  a  packing-house.  The  grower  will  be  able  to  apply 
them  to  his  own  conditions.  A  simple  temporary  shed 


412 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


erected  in  the  orchard  is  often  made  to  serve  all  the  pur- 
poses of  a  packing-house.   A  cloth  tent  is  often  used. 

The    appliances 

needed  hi  packing- 
houses, aside  from 
packages  and  crates, 
are  trucks,  sorting- 
tables,  barrel 
presses,  and  an 
abundance  of  bas- 
kets, crates  or  barrels 
for  the  refuse  fruit. 

FIG.  179.   A  peach  packing-house  for  a  Sorting  -tables 

are  of  various  pat- 
terns, but  those  used  for  apples,  cranberries  and  other 
firm  fruits,  consist  of  a  table  or  tray  about  twice  as  long 
as  broad,  narrowed  at  one  end,  at  which  it  is  open  to 
allow  the  good  fruit  to  roll  off  into  a  basket  or  barrel. 
The  fruits  are  placed  from  the  picking-baskets  on  the 
table,  and  a  number  of  persons  standing  on  either  side 
remove  the  litter  and  the  inferior  fruit,  while  they  work 
the  good  fruit  on  into  the  outlet.  Compare  Figs.  167 
and  172. 

Of  barrel  presses  there  are  several  styles.  The  most 
expeditious  is  some 
kind  of  lever  press 
(like  No.  3  in  Fig. 
181),  but  more  pres- 
sure can  be  secured 
with  a  screw  press 
(7),  and  such  an 
implement  holds 

itself  in  place  When  FIO.  ISO.  Interior  scene  in  Fig.  179. 


Barrel-Presses 


413 


the  head  is  being  adjusted.  Fig.  181  presents  types  of 
barrel  presses  in  common  use.  They  are:  1,  home-made 
lever  press;  2,  Climax  lever  press;  3,  improved  lever 
press;  4,  stand-up  barrel  header;  5,  packing  press  (for 
packing  and  baling 
goods);  6,  stirrup  press; 
7,  iron  screw  press.  Fig. 
182  is  another  form. 

STORING   FRUITS  AT 
THE   FARM 

It  is  impossible  to 
draw  the  line  between 
a  packing-house  and  a 
storage-house.  In  fact, 
the  same  structure  may 
be  used  for  both  pur- 
poses, as  is  the  grape- 
house  that  has  been 
described  in  the  preced- 
ing pages  (page  408). 
There  is  increasing 
necessity  that  the  fruit- 
grower provide  the 
means  of  storing  fruits, 
when  prices  are  low 
and  competition  is  very  sharp. 

As  a  rule,  it  will  not  pay  the  separate  fruit-grower  to 
build  iced  storage  or  chemical  store-houses  for  his  fruit, 
unless  he  has  a  very  large  acreage.  This  cold  storage  of 
fruit  is  really  a  business  by  itself,  and  requires  much  care 
and  skill  to  carry  it  through  successfully,  and  a  discussion 


FIG.  181.  Barrel-presses. 


414  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

of  it  is  foreign  to  the  purpose  of  this  book.  If  the  grower 
desires  to  keep  his  produce  until  late  winter  or  spring,  and 
has  no  cellars  or  natural  storage  place,  it  will  ordinarily 
pay  him  best  to  put  it  into  some  commercial  cold-storage 
house,  and  to  pay  a  package  rate  for  the  storing  of  it. 

For  temporary  storage,  however,  these  remarks  will 
not  apply.  Every  person  who  grows  fruits,  especially 
perishable  kinds,  should  have  some  kind  of  building  in 
which  he  may  place  the  fruits  over  night,  or  for  two  or 
three  days,  when  waiting  for  the  market  to  im- 
prove, or  for  the  purpose  of  cooling  them  down 
before  shipment.  These  houses  are  ordinarily 
cooled  merely  by  cold  air.  They  are  often 
known  as  "chill  rooms."  A  room  well  fitted  for 
the  keeping  of  butter  in  warm  weather  may 
also  be  used  to  advantage  for  fruit.  In  some 
cases,  arrangements  can  be  made  for  the 
barrel-press.  uge  Qf  ice  ^  reduce  fae  temperature  for 

the  time  being.  If  one  has  a  considerable  quantity  of 
fruit,  and  has  a  large  cellar  that  is  well  adapted  to  the 
keeping  of  apples,  he  can  often  store  his  crop  to  advantage 
when  the  autumn  price  is  low;  but  the  grower  must  bear 
in  mind  that  the  risks  in  the  storing  of  fruit  are  great. 
The  markets  may  not  improve,  or  the  fruit  may  not 
keep  well.  Even  when  the  fruit  does  keep  well,  there 
is  frequently  a  large  shrinkage,  and  the  expense  of  re-pack- 
ing and  handling  is  a  large  item.  The  fruit  designed  to  be 
kept  for  the  late  winter  or  spring  trade  should  be  care- 
fully sorted  when  it  is  put  in  storage,  and  especial  care 
should  be  taken  that  none  of  it  is  over-ripe.  Fruit  in  proper 
condition  for  storing  when  it  is  picked  may  be  ruined  for 
long-keeping  quality  by  allowing  it  to  lie  in  the  sun  or  in  a 
warm  place  for  a  day  or  two. 


Fruit  Storage  415 

Requisites  for  domestic  storage  without  ice. 

The  home  storage  establishment  is  commonly  either  a 
cellar  or  a  half-cellar,  although,  by  taking  particular 
pains  in  the  construction  of  air-spaces,  a  building  entirely 
above  ground  may  be  made  to  serve  the  purpose.  A  build- 
ing wholly  on  the  surface,  however,  is  more  likely  to  give 
variable  temperatures  than  one  partially  submerged.  An 
ordinary  house  cellar,  if  it  has  good  ventilation  and  is  not 
too  dry  or  too  warm,  may  answer  very  well  for  the  storage 
of  fruit;  but  it  is  ordinarily  best,  both  for  purposes  of 
storage  and  for  health,  that  the  fruit  cellar  should  be  a 
separate  structure,  if  products  are  to  be  stored  in  any 
quantity.  The  requisites  of  a  good  storage  cellar  for  fruit 
are  chiefly  five:  Protection  from  frost;  the  ability  to  secure 
a  uniform  or  unvarying  temperature  of  40°  or  below; 
facilities  for  ventilation;  air  that  is  moist  enough  to  pre- 
vent evaporation;  complete  safety  from  rats  and  other 
vermin. 

The  protection  from  frost  is  secured  either  by  sinking 
the  building  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  or  by  making 
two  to  four  air-spaces  in  the  walls  in  that  part  standing 
above  ground.  The  ventilation  should  include  facilities 
for  removing  the  warm  and  impure  air  from  somewhere 
near  the  top  of  the  structure.  Some  kind  of  shaft  or  chim- 
ney construction,  with  a  valve  or  shutter  that  can  be 
opened  or  closed  as  necessary,  will  answer  this  purpose.  In 
buildings  above  ground,  it  will  often  be  necessary  to  pro- 
vide some  means  of  taking  in  the  cold  air  near  the  bottom 
of  the  structure,  especially  before  the  cold  weather  of 
winter  sets  in  and  after  the  warm  weather  of  spring  begins. 
Cold  air  being  heavier  than  warm  air,  it  settles  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground  in  still  nights,  and  if  the  floor  of  the 
storage  structure  is  2  or  3  feet  below  the  top  of  the  ground, 


416  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

this  cold  air  may  be  drained  into  the  building  by  means  of 
flues  laid  through  the  walls,  the  outer  ends  standing  just 
above  the  earth.  Six-inch  sewer  pipes,  at  intervals  about 
the  building,  answer  this  purpose.  In  a  building  30  feet 
wide  and  70  feet  long,  three  of  these  valves  along  either 
side,  and  one  on  either  end,  are  probably  sufficient  for 
all  ordinary  requirements. 

Sub-ventilation  is  sometimes  recommended,  and  may 
often  work  to  good  advantage.  This  is  secured  by  running 
a  long  pipe  from  near  the  bottom  of  a  cellar  storage  out 
to  the  surface  of  the  ground  6  or  more  rods  away.  This 
pipe  has  a  valve  at  the  outer  end,  or  at  least  some  pro- 
tecting structure  to  prevent  the  leaves  and  litter  from 
blowing  into  it,  and  it  is  ordinarily  best,  also,  to  have  a 
valve  at  the  inner  end.  Inasmuch  as  the  earth  about  this 
subterranean  passage  is  not  frozen  during  the  winter, 
cold  air  may  be  drawn  in  from  the  outside  and  be  warmed 
up  above  the  freezing  point  in  its  passage  through  the 
tube.  This  type  of  ventilation  has  been  used  with  success 
in  cellars  designed  for  the  wintering  of  bees.  It  should 
always  be  remembered  that  cold  air  contains  less  moisture 
than  does  warm  air.  When  very  cold  air  is  admitted, 
moisture  is  rapidly  taken  up  when  its  temperature  rises, 
and  the  cellar  may  be  made  too  dry.  It  is  advisable, 
therefore,  to  raise  the  temperature  of  such  air  nearly  to 
its  ultimate  or  required  degree  before  it  enters  the  stor- 
age-room. 

Very  dry  cellars  cause  the  fruit  to  shrivel.  Some  varie- 
ties of  apples  are  very  difficult  to  hold  without  shriveling, 
as  the  Spitzenburg  and  the  russets.  Those  rooms  in  which 
there  is  a  natural  sand  or  gravel  bottom  ordinarily  keep 
fruit  in  the  best  condition.  Cement  bottoms  are  very 
likely  to  be  too  dry.  Running  water  is  very  often  desirable 


Storing  Fruits  417 

in  a  fruit  cellar,  not  only  because  it  furnishes  moisture  to 
the  air,  but  also  because  it  is  an  equalizer  of  the  tempera- 
ture. One  must  be  cautioned,  however,  that  a  cellar  not 
properly  ventilated  will  cause  the  fruit  to  mold  and  decay, 
if  it  is  wet.  In  general,  it  is  best  to  have  means  for  supply- 
ing fresh  air,  and  then  keep  the  cellar  simply  moist,  not 
wet.  One  should  avoid  drafts  in  the  storage  cellar,  for 
currents  of  air  are  very  likely  to  cause  the  fruit  to  lose 
moisture  and  to  shrivel. 

Much  is  said  about  the  keeping  of  fruit  on  trays  rather 
than  in  barrels  or  crates,  but  this  must  be  determined  by 
the  character  of  the  cellar  as  to  temperature  and  moisture. 
In  cellars  that  are  too  dry,  the  fruit  should  be  left  in  the 
closed  packages;  but  if  the  air  is  moist  and  the  temperature 
very  low,  the  fruit  may  be  placed  upon  racks  or  trays  to 
good  advantage.  But,  in  any  case,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  fruit  in  storage  for  a  month  or  more  should  be 
re-sorted  and  re-packed  before  it  is  put  on  the  market. 
It  has  been  said  (page  414)  that  the  best  results  in  the 
storing  of  fruit  are  had  when  the  product  is  carefully 
sorted  before  it  is  put  into  the  cellar,  for  even  if  the 
cellar  is  very  nearly  perfect  for  the  keeping  of  the  fruit, 
any  over-ripe  or  decayed  specimens  will  very  likely  break 
down,  and  spread  the  contamination  to  the  entire  sample. 
The  fruit  should  be  cooled  down  somewhat  before  it 
is  placed  in  cold  storage,  especially  if  there  is  much  of  it, 
otherwise  it  raises  the  temperature  of  the  compartment. 

The  requisites  for  keeping  grapes  during  the  winter 
are  given  as  follows  by  George  C.  Snow:  "Any  good  build- 
ing in  which  the  temperature  can  be  held  even  at  about 
35°,  with  ventilation  as  may  be  required,  this  to  be  deter- 
mined by  noting  how  the  fruit  is  keeping,  will  be  found 
available  for  grapes.  No  positive  rules  can  be  laid  down. 
AA 


418 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


A  cooling-room,  in  which  the  fruit  can  be  first  cooled,  is  a 
necessity.  If  placed  directly  in  cold  storage,  the  tempera- 
ture will  be  found  to  be  raised  rapidly  by  placing  a  quan- 
tity of  warm  fruit  in  the  room.  As  even  a  temperature  as 
possible  is  much  the  best.  Grapes  should  not  be  packed  in 
baskets  for  shipping  before  being  stored.  They  should  be 


FIG.  183.  Charles  Downing's  fruit-house. 

ripe,  as  grapes  do  not  mature  after  picking.  Niagara  or 
any  other  variety  can  be  held  only  for  a  limited  time,  some 
varieties  longer  than  others." 

Farm  storage-buildings. 

There  are  many  forms  in  which  storage-houses  may 
be  built  for  home  use.  Fig.  183  is  a  fruit-house  of 
Charles  Downing,  of  pomological  fame,  used  probably  for 


An  Apple  Store-house 


419 


temporary  storage.  It  is  not  intended  to  discuss  the  con- 
struction of  storage  buildings,  but  only  to  give  examples 
of  the  way  in  which  two  or  three  growers  have  met  the 
problem. 

The  Kinney  apple-storage  house,  in  northern  Vermont,  shown 
in  Fig.  184,  is  described  by  the  owner  as  follows:  The  fruit-house 
is  built  on  high  and  dry  ground.  The  cellar  was  3  feet  deep,  and  dirt 
taken  from  this  was  used  to  bank  up  around  the  wall.  The  wall  is 
solid  stone  and  mortar,  is  5  feet  high,  23^  feet  wide  at  the  bottom, 
and  2  feet  at  the  top; 
2-inch  plank  for  sills  on 
this,  bedded  in  mortar, 
doubled  so  as  to  break 
joints;  2  by  4  stud- 
ding above  this;  out- 
side of  studding 
matched  pine,  then 
paper,  and  then  clap- 
boards, painted;  in 
middle  of  studding, 
lath  and  plaster;  inside 
of  studding,  matched 
pine,  then  paper,  and 
then  }/£-inch  sheathing, 
painted .  This  gives 

two  hollow  walls,  or  dead-air  spaces.  For  ventilating,  there  is  one 
ventilator  from  cellar  to  the  observatory  on  the  top  of  the  building, 
which  has  four  large  window  frames,  with  blinds,  but  no  tight  win- 
dows. The  ventilator  opens  into  both  storage  rooms.  We  have 
three  18-inch  windows  on  the  east  and  west  sides  of  the  building  in 
the  cellar,  and  three  large  windows  in  the  west  side,  next  to  the  store- 
room. Both  floors  are  double,  with  paper  between,  and  the  second 
room  is  ceiled  overhead  with  matched  spruce,  and  painted.  The 
two  windows  on  the  east  side  show  in  cut,  with  the  outside  doors. 

About  picking  time,  we  begin  to  cool  off  the  building  by  keeping 
open  during  westerly  winds  or  cold  waves,  and  closed  as  much  as 
possible  when  it  is  warm.  We  try  not  to  put  in  any  fruit  when  the 
fruit  is  warm,  but  have  it  cool,  if  possible.  In  this  way  the  air  in 
the  building  is  cool  all  the  time. 


FIG.  184.    Apple-house  in  the  Lake 
Champlain  country. 


420 


The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 


A  "medium-priced  packing-  and  storage-house"  in 
the  Hood  River  country  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  185  (from 
Lewis  and  Brown,  Ore.  Bull.  No.  118).  It  is  provided  with 

ventilator  and  a 
chute  from  the 
upper  floors. 

The  Alwood 
storage  cellar, 
in  Virginia,  is 
shown  hi  Fig. 
186: 

The     essential 

FIG.  185.  Combing  packing-house  and  storage-house         features  involved  in 
in  the  Hood  River  Valley.  , ,  .  ,     ..  . 

this  storage -build- 
ing are:  First,  a  cellar  excavated  into  a  gently  sloping  hillside,  carried 
into  the  bank  far  enough  to  place  the  cellar-room  entirely  below  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  and  yet  give  opportunity  to  enter  the  cellar  easily 
by  an  inclined  way  from  the  lower  side  of  the  slope;  secondly,  a  flue 
leading  out  from  near  the  center  of  the  floor  of  the  cellar-room,  along 
the  bank  of  the  hillside  for  a  considerable  distance,  with  sufficient 
fall  to  make  it  act  both  as  a  drain-pipe  and  a  fresh-air  flue;  thirdly, 
ventilating  flues  placed  at  each  end  of  the  cellar-room  or  elsewhere, 
as  desired,  and  rising  to  the  height  necessary  to  give  a  sufficient 
draft  to  carry  off  rapidly  the  air  from  the  cellar-room  whenever 
ventilation  is  desired. 

If  the  air  in  the  cellar  becomes  warmer  than  the  air  in  the  under- 
ground flue,  it  will  rise  through  the  ventilating  flues,  and  the  colder 
air  will  flow  in  from  the  supply  flue,  as  desired.  The  temperature  of 
the  cellar-room  can  thus  be  approximately  controlled  to  at  least  the 
neighborhood  of  55°  to  60°  F.  The  two  ventilators  a  a  rise  through 
the  store-room,  and  are  6  inches  in  diameter  by  15  feet  long,  thus 
insuring  good  draft.  The  air-flue  b  enters  under  the  foundation  and 
discharges  fresh  air  into  the  cellar-room  near  the  center.  This  flue 
is  6  inches  in  diameter,  and  theoretically  should  be  extended  far 
enough  along  the  hillside  to  admit  of  tempering  the  air  to  the  tem- 
perature of  the  surrounding  earth  while  passing  through  it.  The 
cellar  built  here  has  an  air-flue  only  150  feet  long,  and  we  have  never 


A  Virginia  Store-house 


421 


been  able  to  cool  the  air  down  below  60°  F.  when  the  temperature  of 
the  outside  air  is  above  70°  F. 

The  dotted  line  h  h  shows  the  contour  of  the  hillside,  and  the 
line  i  shows  the  entry-way  into  the  cellar.  The  entry-way  should 
preferably  be  on  the  north  side  of  the  structure,  and  should  be  closed 
in  by  a  vestibule,  so  as  to  protect  the  cellarway  from  storm,  and  to 
prevent  influence  of  outside  temperature  upon  the  atmosphere  in 
the  cellar. 

The  roof  structure  of  vestibule  is  shown  at  d,  and  one  of  the  side 
walls  of  the  entry-way  at  e.  The  floor  of  the  cellar// pitches  slightly 
to  the  mouth  of  the  air-flue  b,  which  serves  as  a  drain-pipe  when  one 
is  needed.  The  cellar  floor  is  made  of  broken  stone  and  cement,  and 
successfully  checks  the  upward  rise  of  ground  water.  The  bins  c  c 
and  c'  on  one  side  of  the  cellar-room  are  shown,  with  dimensions. 
They  are  constructed  of  2  by  4  scantling  and  1-inch  oak  boards.  At 


FIG.  186.  Longitudinal  section  of  Virginia  storage-house. 

c'  the  facing  on  lower  bin  is  shown  in  position.  When  we  desire  to 
fill  the  bins,  additional  facing  boards  are  used.  The  letters  k  k  at 
lower  ends  of  ventilating  flues  indicate  position  of  sliding  dampers, 
by  means  of  which  the  flow  of  air  from  the  cellar  is  effectually  con- 
trolled. With  the  short  flue  used  in  the  cellar  here,  we  find  that 


422  The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing 

when  the  mercury  remains  below  20°  F.  for  any  length  of  time,  the 
cellar  will  be  reduced  below  freezing,  unless  the  ventilators  are  closed. 


We  have  now  completed  the  fruit-book,  having  sur- 
veyed the  field.  It  is  a  field  of  great  variety,  demanding 
many  qualities  on  the  part  of  the  successful  grower. 
This  grower  should  first  apprehend  the  principles  and  the 
underlying  reasons,  and  to  teach  this  is  the  prime  purpose 
of  the  book,  while  still  everywhere  discussing  the  prac- 
tice. If  the  grower  knows  why,  he  will  teach  himself  how. 

The  author  hopes  that  the  grower  will  meet  with  much 
success,  and  that  his  enjoyment  in  the  work  will  be  abid- 
ing and  real. 


INDEX 


Accidents,  288. 

Accounts  of  fruit-pickers,  381. 

Achras  Sapota,  5. 

Acid  phosphate,  for  apples,  136,  143. 

Acleris  minuta,  353. 

Acme  harrow,  85. 

Acrobasis  nebulella,  359. 

Agrilus  bilineatus,  352. 

Alfalfa,  as  cover-crop,  122,  123,  124. 

Almond,  species  of,  5. 

temperatures  injurious  to,  314. 
Alsophila  pometaria,  346. 
Alternate  system,  211. 
Alwood  storage  cellar,  420. 
Amatungulu,  7. 
Amelanchier,  species  of,  7. 
Ammonium  sulfate,  for  apples,  143. 
Ampelophaga  myron,  355. 
Anacardium  occidentals,  5. 
Ananas  sativus,  8. 
Anarsia  lineatella,  357. 
Ancylis  comptana,  360. 
Annona,  species  of,  4. 
Anthonomus  quadrigibbus,  344. 
Anthracnose,  350,  361. 
Aphids,  343. 
Aphis,  351,  353,  356,  357. 

species,  343,  356,  360. 
Apple,  adaptability  to  soils,  13. 

diseases  of,  343. 

early  plantings,  67. 

-growing,  status  of,  22. 

insects,  343. 

Mammee,  6. 

orchard  experiments,  134. 

roots,  97. 

species  of,  3. 
Apples,  distance  for,  177. 

exporting,  394. 

fertilizers  in,  131,  132. 

fertilizers  for,  143,  144. 

fertilizing  of,  134. 

picking,  366,  373. 

score-card  for,  161. 

sterile  and  fertile,  158,  159. 

stock  for,  170. 

temperatures  injurious  to,  314. 


Apples,  test  of  fertilizer  needs,  145. 

thinning  of,  243. 

trimming,  187. 
Apricot,  diseases  and  insects  of,  350. 

species  of,  3. 
Apricots,  distance  for,  177. 

exposure  for,  54. 

fertilizers  for,  147. 

picking,  368. 

temperatures  injurious  to,  314. 
Arbutus  Unedo,  6. 
Ar chips  argyrospila,  345. 
Ar chips  cerasivorana,  351. 
Army-worm,  false,  352. 
Arsenate  of  lead,  337. 
Arsenic,  as  insecticide,  336. 
Arsenical  poisoning,  361. 
Arsenicals  for  spraying,  331. 
Artocarpus,  species  of,  4. 
Asimina  triloba,  4. 
Aspect  of  a  fruit-plantation,  53. 
Aspidiotus  perniciosus,  349. 
Atmospheric  drainage,  49. 
Avocado,  6. 

Bacillus  amylovorus,  357. 

Bacterial  diseases,  323. 

Bacterium  tumefaciens ,  350. 

Bactris  Gasipaes,  6. 

Bad  spots,  treatment  for,  296. 

Bagging  fruits,  282. 

Balaninus  species,  352. 

Baldwin  apple,  table  of  points,  161. 

Ballard,  mentioned,  399. 

Banana,  8. 

Banking  up  trees,  283. 

Barbadoes  gooseberry,  8. 

Barden,  on  frost,  50. 

Bark-beetle  borer,  295. 

Bark-bound  trees,  274. 

Bark  disease,  352. 

Barked  trees,  treatment  for,  298. 

Barley,  as  cover-crop,  119,  123. 

seed  to  the  acre,  124. 
Barnyard  manure,  129. 
Barrel-presses,  412. 
Barrenness  of  orchards,  286. 


(423) 


424 


Index 


Basic  slag-meal,  for  apples,  137,  143. 
Baskets  for  fruits,  386. 
Batchelor,  on  thinning  apples,  246. 
Beach,  on  sterility  of  grapes,  158,  159. 

on  thinning  apples,  244. 
Bean,  as  cover-crop,  122,  123. 
Bean,  velvet,  weight  of  seeds,  126. 
Bearing  wood,  232. 
Beattie,  on  spraying,  330,  334. 
Beechnut,  5. 
Beetles,  attacks  by,  322. 
Beggarweed,  as  cover-crop,  122,  123. 
Bembecia  marginata,  351. 
Bennett,  quoted,  93. 
Berry  bushes,  fertilizers  for,  149. 
Berry-stands,  371. 
Bertholletia  excelsa,  6. 
"Better  Fruit,"  quoted,  406. 
Birds,  protection  from,  289. 
Blackberry,  diseases  of,  350. 

insects,  350. 

species  of,  7. 
Blackberries,  distance  for,  177. 

fertilizers  for,  149. 

injury  from  frosts,  309. 

laying  down,  257. 

on  low  lands,  53. 

picking,  365. 

thinning  of,  249. 
Black-knot,  18,  359. 
Black  leaf,  as  insecticide,  341. 
Black-rot,  354. 
Black-spot,  356. 
Blake,  quoted,  176,  197. 
Blast,  352. 

Blight,  356,  357,  361. 
Bliss,  on  pruning,  190,  234. 
Blister-mite,  358. 
Blodgett,  on  spraying,  330. 
Blossoms,  effect  of  rain  on,  41. 

effect  of  wind  on,  42. 
Blueberry,  species  of,  7. 
Bone-meal,  for  apples,  137,  143. 
Booth,  on  lay-out  of  orchards,  207. 

on  subsoil,  115. 

Bordeaux  mixture  for  spraying,  331, 342. 
Borers,  73,  294. 
Botryosph&ria  ribis,  353. 
Box-packing  fruits,  400. 
Box-press,  403. 
Bread-fruit,  4. 
Breadstuffs,  raising  of,  9. 
Brackett,  G.  B.,  quoted,  262. 
Bramble    fruits,    diseases    and    insects 

of,  350 

Brazil-nut,  6. 
Brown,  storage,  420;  packing,  400. 


Brown,  Edgar,  seedman's  weights,  125. 
Brown-rot,  351,  356. 
Brown-tail  moth,  346. 
Bryobia  pratensis,  357. 
Buckwheat,  as  cover-crop,  118. 

seed  to  the  acre,  124,  125. 
Bud-moth,  346,  359. 
Buffalo  berry,  7. 
Bush-fruits,  definition  of,  7. 
Butternut,  5. 

Cabbage,  as  cover-crop,  122,  123. 
Cabbage  palmetto  as  windbreak,  63 
Calocampa  nupera,  352. 
Canarium  ovatum,  6. 
Cane-blight,  353. 
Cane-fruits,  thinning  of,  249. 
Canker,  352. 
Cankers,  frost,  304. 

treatment  for,  296. 
Canker-worm,  57,  346,  347. 
Caraunda,  7. 

Card,  on  thinning  cane-fruits,  249 
Carica  Papaya,  6. 
Carissa,  species  of,  7. 
Carob,  5. 

Carpocapsa  pomonetta,  347. 
Carya,  species  of,  5. 
Case-bearers,  347,  359. 
Cashew,  5. 
Casimiroa  edulis,  4. 
Castanea,  species  of,  5. 
Catch-crops,  100. 
Caterpillars,  attacks  by,  322. 
Cavanaugh,  soil  analysis,  115. 
Cedar-apple  fungus,  57. 
Ceratonia  Siliqua,  5. 
Cerinam,  8. 

Chsenomeles,  species  of,  3. 
Chandler,  on  frost  injury,  315. 

on  injury  to  fruit-buds,  101. 

on  stocks,  171. 

on  winter-killing,  303. 
Chemical  fertilizers,  131. 
Cherimoya,  4. 
Cherries,  distance  for,  177. 

fertilizers  for,  147. 

picking,  368. 

sterility  of,  160. 
Cherry,  diseases  of,  351. 

insects,  351. 

Mahaleb,  as  stock,  14. 

species  of,  3. 

stocks  for,  171«-- 

Surinam,  4. 
Chestnut,  diseases  and  insects,  352. 

species  of,  5. 


Index 


425 


Chile-hazel,  6. 
Chinquapin,  5. 
Chrysophyllum  Cainito,  5. 
Church,  on  orchard-heating,  272. 
Citron,  4. 

Citrus,  species  of,  4. 
Cladosporium  carpophilum,  356. 
Climate,  influence  of,  10,  11. 
Climax  basket,  389. 
Clinton,  L.  A.,  quoted,  84. 
Close,  cover-crops,  125;  packages,  399. 
Clover,   as  cover-crop,    117,    120,   122, 
123,  124. 

seed  to  the  acre,  124,  125. 

weight  of  seeds,  126. 
Clover  Mite,  357. 
Cobnut,  5. 
Coccoloba  uvifera,  6. 
Coconut,  6. 
Cocos  nucifera,  6. 
Codlin-moth,  347. 

distribution  of,  17. 
Coleophora  species,  347. 
Collar-rots,  treatment  for,  298. 
Conotrachelus  species,   349,   357,   359, 

360. 

Contour  planting,  192. 
Cook,  A.  J.,  mentioned,  319. 
Corbett,  on  home  fruit-garden,  220. 
Corn,  as  cover-crop,  118,  123. 

in  orchards,  104. 
Corylus,  species  of,  5. 
Coryneum  beyerinkii,  356. 
Cost-accounting,  27. 
Cover-crops,  113. 
Covering  for  protection,  257. 
Cowberry,  8. 
Cowpea,  as  cover-crop,  119,  123. 

seed  to  the  acre,  124,  125. 

weight  of  seeds,  126. 
Cox,  on  frost,  252. 
Crab-apple,  species  of,  3. 
Crambus  hortuellus,  352. 
Cranberry,  8. 

diseases  and  insects,  352. 

distance  for,  177. 

fertilizers  for,  150. 

flooding,  260. 
Craponius  inaequalis,  354. 
Cricket,  tree,  351. 
Cronartium  ribicola,  353. 
Cropping  the  plantation,  102. 
Crosby,  on  insecticides,  336. 

on  insects,  343. 
Crown-gall,  350. 
Cultivators  and  moisture-saving,  88. 


Curculio,  344,  349,  354,  357,  359,  360.        Feijoa  Sellowiana,  4 


Currant,  diseases  and  insects,  353. 

distance  for,  177. 

fertilizers  for,  149. 

species  of,  7. 

treatment  for  borers,  295. 
Currents  of  air  vs.  frost,  260 
Custard-apple,  4. 
Cydonia  oblonga,  3. 
Cymatophora  ribearia,  353. 
Cyphomandra  betacea,  8. 

Dakruma  convolutetta,  354. 
Date,  6. 
Dehorning,  236. 
Determinate  growth,  100. 
Dewberry,  diseases  and  insects,  350. 

species  of,  7. 
Diaspis  pentagona,  357. 
Diospyros,  species  of,  5. 
Diplosis  pyrivira,  358. 
Discovery,  8. 
Diseases,  323,  343. 
Distance  for  planting,  176. 
Double-planting,  178. 
Drainage,  atmospheric,  49. 
Dried  blood,  for  apples,  143. 
Dry  freezing,  12. 
Dust-sprayers,  330. 
Dwarfs  vs.  standards,  167. 

Elaeagnus  multiflora,  7. 
Emphytus  maculatus,  361. 
Empoasca  mali,  344. 
Endothia  parasitica,  352. 
Enriching  of  fruit-lands,  109. 
Equilateral  triangle  system,  192. 
Eriobotrya  japonica,  3. 
Eriocampoides  limacina,  352. 
Eriophyes  pyri,  358. 
Erwin,  on  pruning,  190,  234. 
Eudemis  vacciniana,  353. 
Eugenia,  species  of,  4. 
Euphoria  Longana,  5. 
Euphroctis  chrysorrhsea,  346. 
Europe,  fruit-growing  in,  32. 
Eustace,  on  frost,  50. 
Euthrips  pyri,  358. 
Exoascus  deformans,  356. 
Exploration,  8. 

Explosives  for  frost  and  hail,  261. 
Exposure  of  a  fruit-plantation,  53. 

Fagus  grandifolia,  5. 

Fall  web-worm,  347. 

Fallowing,  104. 

Family  fruit-plantation,  217. 


426 


Index 


Fergusson,  on  orchard-heating,  272. 
Fernald,  quoted,  19. 
Fertility  and  productiveness,  287. 
Fertilizers,  131. 

application  of,  140,  152. 
Ficus,  species  of,  4. 
Fidia  viticida,  355. 
Fig,  4. 

Fig,  Indian,  8. 
Figs,  distance  for,  177. 
Filbert,  5. 
Fillers,  178. 
Fire-worm,  353. 
Fires  for  frost,  265. 
Fisher,  on  orchard  lay-out,  215. 
Flea-beetle,  355. 
Fletcher,  on  self-sterility,  158. 
Floats,  90. 

Flooding  for  frost,  260. 
Forests  and  fruit-growing,  57. 
Formulas  for  spraying,  333. 
Fragaria,  species  of,  8. 
Freezes,  definition  of,  44. 
Frost,  cankers,  304. 

definition  of,  44. 

injuries  from,  307. 

and  location,  45. 

prediction  of,  252. 

protection  from,  251. 
Fruit,  definition  of,  1,  2. 
Fruit-flies,  351. 
Fruit-pickers,  377. 
Fruit-rot  fungus,  369. 
Fruit  scale,  359. 
Fruit-worm,  353,  354. 
Fruit-zones,  11,  12. 
Fulgorid,  352. 
Fungi,  attacks  by,  323. 
Fungicides,  336. 

Garcia,  on  frost  injury,  315. 
Gardener,  on  sterility  of  cherries,  160. 
Gevuina  Avellana,  6. 
Ginkgo  biloba,  5. 
Girdled  trees,  remedies  for,  290. 
Girdling  trees,  277. 
Glseosporium  venetum,  350. 
Glycosmis  aurantiaca,  4. 
Gooseberry,  diseases  and  insects,  354. 

fertilizers  for,  149. 

species  of,  7. 

Gooseberry,  Barbadoes,  8. 
Gooseberry,  Otaheite,  6. 
Goumi,  7. 
Gourley,  on  fertilizing  apples,  136. 

on  sod  in  orchards,  70. 
Grading  fruit,  384. 


Grafting-wax,  281. 
Grains,  raising  of,  9. 
Granadilla,  6. 
Grapeberry-worm,  355. 
Grapefruit,  4. 

temperatures  injurious  to,  314. 
Grapes,  diseases  of,  354. 

distance  for,  177. 

fertilizers  for,  147. 

injury  from  frost,  312. 

insects,  354. 

laying  down,  257. 

packing  of,  410. 

soil-adaptation,  13. 

species  of,  6. 

sterile  and  fertile,  158,  159. 

storing  of,  417. 

temperatures  injurious  to,  314. 
Graptodera  chalybea,  355. 
Gravenstein  apple,  table  of  points,  162 
Green  fruit-worms,  347. 
Green,  S.  B.,  on  sun-scald,  293. 
Greene,  on  orchard-heating,  272. 
Guava,  4. 

Guava,  pineapple,  4. 
Guignardia  bidwellii,  354. 
Guignardia  vaccinii,  352. 
Gymnoconia  inter stitialis,  351. 
Gymnosporangium  glob&sum,  360. 
Gypsy-moth,  348. 

Hail-gun,  262. 

Hail  injuries,  292. 

Hairy  root,  treatment  for,  299. 

Hale,  J.  H.,  mentioned,  201. 

Halsted,  quoted,  307. 

Hammon,  on  temperatures  for  fruits 

314. 

Hand-picking,  380. 
Hann,  on  frosts,  51. 
Hansen,  on  sun-scald,  293. 
Hardpan,  82. 

Harrowing  to  save  moisture,  85. 
Harrows,  85,  94. 
Hartlib,  Samuel,  quoted,  80. 
Harvesting,  364. 
Hawes,  Benj.  F.,  quoted,  311. 
Hazelnut,  5. 

Headden,  on  arsenic,  362. 
Heading-in,  283. 
Heating  for  frosts,  265. 
Hedrick,  on  apple  roots,  98. 

on  effects  of  rain,  41,  318. 

on  effects  of  wind,  42. 

on  fertilizers  for  grapes,  148. 

on  fertilizing  apples,  134. 

on  low  temperature,  317. 


Index 


427 


Hedrick,  on  sod  in  orchards,  69. 

on  temperature,  41. 

on  winter-killing,  302. 
Hellebore  as  insecticide,  338. 
Hemerocampa  leucostigma,  350. 
Herrick,  quoted,  93,  248. 
Heterocordylus  malinus,  349. 
Hexagonal  system,  192. 
Hickory,  diseases  and  insects,  356. 
Hickory,  shellbark,  5. 
Hide-bound  trees,  274. 
Higgins,  mentioned,  387. 
Himalaya  berry,  7. 
Holt,  mentioned,  387. 
Home  fruit-garden,  217. 
Home  grounds,  plan  for,  219. 
Hovenia  dulcis,  6. 
Howard,  on  frost-injury,  314. 

on  pruning,  189. 
Humidity,  influence  of,  12. 
Hunting,  8. 
Hutt,  .quoted,  216. 
Hyphantria  cunea,  347. 

Indeterminate  growth,  100. 
Indian  fig,  8. 
Injuries,  288. 
Insecticides,  336. 
Insects,  343. 

attacks  by,  322. 
Irrigating  for  frost,  260. 
Irrigation  of  fruit-lands,  106. 
Isohyetals,  12. 
Isotherms,  12. 

Jack-fruit,  4. 
Jambolan,  4. 
Jamrosade,  4. 
Jarvis,  on  fillers,  179. 

on  pruning,  190,  234. 

on  renovating,  284. 

on  squaring  a  field,  214. 

on  trimming  apples,  188. 
Jehle,  on  cankers,  296,  305. 
Jew  plum,  5. 
Juglans,  species  of,  5. 
Jujube,  6. 
Juneberry,  7. 

Kaki,  5. 

Kerosene  emulsion  for  spraying,   331, 
King,  quoted,  43,  85.  [339. 

Kinney  storage  house,  419. 
Kumquat,  4. 

Labels,  222. 

Ladders  for  picking,  374. 


Laws  for  pests,  18. 

Laying  out  the  plantation,  191. 

Leaf-blight,  354,  360,  361. 

Leaf-curl,  356. 

Leaf-hopper,  344,  355. 

Leaf-miner,  350. 

Leaf-roller,  345,  360. 

Leaf-spot,  350,  356,  360. 

Lecanium  corni,  359. 

Leguminous  crops,  119. 

Lemon,  4. 

Lemons,  temperatures  injurious  to,  314. 

Lepidosaphes  ulmi,  348. 

Lestout,  M.,  on  frosts,  264. 

Lewis,  on  crossing  apples,  159. 

on  packing,  400,  406. 

on  storage,  420. 

"Lewiston  Orchards  Life,"  quoted,  104. 
Lime,  4. 

berry,  4. 

Spanish,  6. 

Lime  for  apples  and  pears,  138,  145. 
Lime-sulfur  for  spraying,  331,  339. 
Line,  laying-out  with,  201. 
Lining  fruit-boxes,  401. 
Lining-in  method,  212. 
Litchi  chinensis,  5. 
Live-stock,  protection  from,  289. 
Location  and  productiveness,  287. 

for  fruit-growing,  38. 
Lodeman,  on  soil  injury,  361. 
Lodeman's  label,  226. 
Lombardy  poplars  as  windbreak,  62. 
Longyen,  5. 
Loquat,  3. 

Lucuma  mammosa,  5. 
Lumbering,  8.  9. 
Lygidea  mendax,  349. 

Macomber,  J.  T.,  quoted,  258. 

Macrodactylus  subspinosus,  356. 

Mahaleb  cherry,  as  stock,  14. 

Making  the  rows  straight,  194. 

Malacosoma  species,  349. 

Mammea  americana,  6. 

Mammee  apple,  6. 

Mandarin,  4. 

Mandarines,  temperatures  injurious  to, 

314. 

Mangifera  indica,  5. 
Mango,  5. 
Manure,  129. 
Maples  as  windbreak,  62. 
Maps  for  orchards,  221. 
Market  and  location,  40. 
Marketing,  364. 
Marmalade  tree,  5. 


428 


Index 


Marsonia  juglandis,  356,  361. 
Martin,  on  orchard  systems,  192. 
Mathewson,  on  insecticides,  336. 

on  insects,  343. 

Maynard,  on  thinning  plums,  248. 
Measuring-worm,  353. 
Medlar,  3. 

Melander,  on  spraying,  330,  334. 
Melicocca  bijuga,  6. 
Melilotus,  as  cover-crop,  120. 
Merriam,  C.  H.,  reference,  10. 
Mespilus  germanica,  3. 
Metellus  rubi,  350. 
Mice,  protection  from,  290. 
Midge,  358. 
Mildew,  354. 

powdery,  352. 
Millet,  as  cover-crop,  119,  123. 

seed  to  the  acre,  124. 

weight  of  seeds,  126. 
Mineola  vaccinii,  353. 
Mining,  8.  9. 
Mite,  357. 
Moisture  determinant,  12. 

harrowing  to  save,  85. 

plowing  to  save,  84. 

of  soil,  81. 

Monophadnus  rubi,  351. 
Monster  a  deliciosa,  8. 
Moore,  J.  C.,  quoted,  197. 
Moore,  on  orchard  lay-out,  211. 
Morus,  species  of,  4. 
Mulberry,  species  of,  4. 
Mulching  as  frost-protection,  255,  260. 
Mulching  trees,  183. 
Muriate  of  potash,  for  apples,  143. 
Musa,  species  of,  8. 
Mycosphaeretta  fragarise ,  360. 
Myrica  Nagi,  6. 
Myzus  species,  351,  353,  357. 

Natal  plum,  7. 

Nectarine,  3. 

Nectarines,  distance  for,  177. 

Nematode  root-knot,  17. 

Nicofume,  as  insecticide,  341. 

Nitrate,  for  apples,  143. 

Nitrogen,  amount  of,  131;  for  apples, 

143. 

Nozzles  for  spraying,  326,  334. 
Nursery  lands,  112. 
Nursery  stock,  growing  in  orchards,  103. 

Oats,  as  cover-crop,  119,  123. 

seed  to  the  acre,  124,  125. 
(Ecanthus  nigricornis,  351. 
O'Gara,  on  frost-protection,  251. 


O'Gara,  on  orchard-heating,  266. 
Oil-heating  for  frost,  267. 
Olea  europaea,  6. 
Olive,  6. 

temperatures  injurious  to,  314. 
Opuntia,  species  of,  8. 
Orange,  soil-adaptation,  13. 

species  of,  4. 

temperatures  injurious  to,  314. 
Orchard  crops,  104. 

definition  of,  3. 

-heating,  265. 

lay-out,  206. 

renovating,  283. 

systems,  192. 

Organizing  the  business,  24. 
Otaheite  gooseberry,  6. 
Outlook  for  fruit-growing,  20. 
Over-production  of  fruit,  23. 
Oyster-shell  scale,  348. 

Package  label,  223. 
Packages  for  fruits,  386. 
Packing  fruit,  383. 

-houses,  407. 

-table,  402. 

Paddock,   chemical  analysis  of  cover- 
crops,  122. 

Paddock's  vineyard  label,  226. 
Paecilocapsus  lineatus,  354. 
Paleacrita  vernata,  347. 
Palm,  peach,  6. 
Palmer  worm,  348. 
Palmetto,  cabbage,  as  windbreak,  63. 
Papaw,  6. 

northern,  4. 

Parasite  determinant,  16. 
Parasites  and  productiveness,  287. 
Passi flora  edulis,  6. 
Payne,  on  windbreaks,  63. 
Peach,  3. 

palm,  6. 

tree  borers,  295. 

trees,  laying  down,  258. 

yellows,  18. 
Peaches,  diseases  of,  356. 

distance  for,  177. 

exposures  for,  54. 

fertilizers  for,  146. 

insects,  356. 

picking,  368. 

soil-adaptation,  13. 

stock  for,  170. 

temperatures  injurious  to,  314,  315. 

trimming,  185. 
Pear  buds,  on  mountain-ash,  14. 

prickly,  8. 


Index 


429 


Pear  roots,  97. 

species  of,  3. 
Pears,  diseases  of,  357. 

distance  for,  177. 

fertilizers  for,  144. 

insects,  357. 

picking,  367. 

sterile  and  fertile,  157. 

stock  for,  170. 

temperatures  injurious  to,  314. 

trimming,  186. 
Peas,  as  cover-crop,  123. 

seed  to  the  acre,  124,  125. 

temperatures  injurious  to,  314. 

weight  of  seeds,  126. 
Pecan,  5. 

diseases  and  insects,  359. 

distance  for,  177. 
Pedigree  plants,  168. 
Pereskia  aculeata,  8. 
Per  sea  gratissima,  6. 
Persimmon,  5. 
Phoenix  dactylifera,  6. 
Phosphoric  acid,  amount  of,  131. 

for  apples,  143. 
Phyllanthus  disticha,  6. 
Phylloscelis  atra,  352. 
Phylloxera  species,  386. 
Physiological  diseases,  323. 
Pickett,  on  results  of  tillage,  71. 
Picking  fruits,  365. 
Pili  nut,  6. 
Pineapple,  8. 

screening,  259. 

soil-adaptation,  13. 
Pine-hole  borer,  295. 
Pistacio  vera,  6. 
Place  for  fruit-growing,  39. 
Flanker,  90. 
Plantain,  8. 

Plantation  and  productiveness,  287. 
Plant-bug,  four-striped,  354. 

-lice,  343. 

-lice,  attacks  by,  323. 
Planting-board,  195. 

plan,  181. 
Plants,  securing  of,  164. 

setting  of,  174. 
Plasmopara  viticola,  354. 
Plat  of  orchards,  221. 
Plowing  to  save  moisture,  84. 
Plow,  laying  out  with,  198. 
Plowrightia  morbosa,  359. 
Plum  buds,  on  peach,  14. 

domestica,  soil-adaptation,  13. 

Jew,  5. 

Natal,  7. 


Plum,  species  of,  3. 
Plums,  diseases  of,  359. 

distance  for,  177. 

fertilizers  for,  147. 

insects,  359. 

picking,  368. 

sterile  and  fertile,  158. 

stock  for,  171. 

temperatures  injurious  to,  314. 

thinning  of,  248. 

trimming,  187. 
Podosphsera  oxycanthae,  352. 
Poisoning,  arsenical,  361. 
Polychrosis  viteana,  355. 
Pome,  2. 
Pomegranate,  6. 
Pomelo,  4. 

Pomology,  definition  of,  1. 
Poncirus  trifoliata,  4. 
Pond-apple,  4. 
Porthetria  dispar,  348. 
Potash,  amount  of,  131. 

for  apples,  139,  143. 
Powell,  G.  H.,  quoted,  281,  369. 
Powell,  George  T.,  cover-crops,  115. 

on  exporting  apples,  394. 
Power  sprayer,  334. 
Prediction  of  frost,  252. 
Prickly  pear,  8. 

Propagation  and  productiveness,  287. 
Protection  from  frost,  251. 
Proteopteryx  deludana,  359. 
Prunes,  temperatures  injurious  to,  314. 
Pruning,  184,  230. 

and  productiveness,  287. 
Prunus,  species  of,  3,  5. 
Pseudomonas  juglandis,  361. 
Psidium  Guajava,  4. 
Psylla  pyricola,  358. 
Pteronus  ribesii,  354. 
Puddling,  184. 
Pumps  for  spraying,  326. 
Punica  Granatum,  6. 
Pyrus,  species  of,  3. 

Quince,  diseases  and  insects,  360. 

distance  for,  177. 

fertilizers  for,  147. 

on  low  lands,  53. 

species  of,  3. 

sterility  of,  158. 
Quincunx  system,  192. 

Rabbits,  protection  from,  290. 
Rain  at  blooming- time,  41. 

effect  on  setting  of  fruit,  317. 
Rape,  as  cover-crop,  118,  122,  123,  124. 


430 


Index 


Rape,  seed  to  the  acre,  124,  125. 

weight  of  seeds,  126. 
Raspberries,  diseases  of,  350. 

distance  for,  177. 

fertilizers  for,  149. 

insects,  350. 

laying  down,  257. 

picking,  379. 

species  of,  7. 

sterile  and  fertile,  457. 

thinning  of,  249. 

treatment  for  borers,  295. 
Records  of  orchards,  221. 

for  picking,  381. 
Rectangular  system,  192. 
Red  bugs,  349. 
Reddick,  on  diseases,  343. 

on  fungicides,  336. 

on  winter-killing,  302. 
Red-rust,  57. 
Red-spider,  357. 
Renovating  orchards,  283. 
Rest-periods  in  relation  to  frost,  101. 
Rhagoletis  species,  345,  351. 
Rhode  Island  Greening  apple,  table  of 

points,  162. 
Ribes,  species  of,  7. 
Rigney,  on  frost-injury,  315. 
Ringing  trees,  277. 
Roberts,  on  fertilizers,  131. 
Rodents,  protection  from,  289. 
Rollers  and  moisture-saving,  89. 
Root-borer,  351,  360. 

gall,  350. 

treatment  for,  298. 

knot,  17,  299. 

louse,  360. 

worm,  355. 
Roots,  broken,  228. 
Rose-apple,  4. 
Rose-chafer,  57,  356. 
Rotation  of  plantations,  126. 
Rows,  making  straight,  194. 
Rubus,  species  of,  7. 
Rusts,  351,  353,  360. 
Rye,  as  cover-crop,  118,  123,  124. 

seed  to  the  acre,  124,  125. 

San  Jose  scale,  349. 

Sapodilla,  5. 

Sapote,  white,  4. 

Saw-fly,  351,  354,  355,  361. 

Scab,  356,  358. 

Scald,  352. 

Scale  insects,  attacks  by,  323. 

Schizoneura  lanigera,  350. 

Sclerotinia  fructigena,  351,  356. 


Scraping  trees,  276. 

Sea-grape,  6. 

Sears,  clover  as  cover-crop,  120. 

on  scoring  apples,  161. 
Selandria  vitis,  355. 
Self-sterile  fruits,  156. 
Septoria  rubi,  350. 
Setting-board,  196. 

of  fruit,  effect  of  rain  on,  317. 

the  plants,  174. 
Shaddock,  4. 
Shellbark  hickory,  5. 
Shepherdia  argentea,  7. 
Siphocoryne  arena?,  343. 
Site  for  fruit-growing,  39,  52. 
Skinner  irrigation  system,  107. 
Slug,  352,  355. 
Small-fruits,  care  of,  229. 

definition  of,  7. 

setting  in  an  orchard,  216. 
Smoke  for  frost,  263. 
Smudges  for  frost,  263. 
Snow,  G.  C.,  on  storing  grapes,  417. 
Soaps,  as  insecticides,  338. 
Sod-mulch  in  orchards,  69. 

orchards,  69. 
Soil  determinant,  13. 

moisture  of,  81. 

-poisoning,  361. 

structure  of,  77. 
Sorting-tables,  412. 
Sour-sop,  4. 
Soybean,  as  cover-crop,  122,  123. 

seed  to  the  acre,  124,  125. 

weight  of  seeds,  126. 
Spanish  lime,  6. 
Span-worm,  353. 
Speculation,  8. 
Sphxrotheca  mors-uvae,  354. 
Sphinx,  355. 
Spondias  dulcis,  5. 
Spraying,  319. 

for  frost,  260. 
Spray  pumps,  326. 
Square  system,  192. 
Squaring  a  field,  214. 
Stable  manure,  129. 
Staking  out  orchards,  202. 

young  trees,  273. 
Standards  vs.  dwarfs,  167. 
Star-apple,  5. 

Stewart,  on  fertilizing  apples,  138,  143. 
Stiger,  Albert,  mentioned,  261. 
St.  John's  Bread,  5. 
Stocks,  169. 

Stone-fruits,  picking,  368. 
Storage,  413. 


Index 


431 


Storing  fruits,  413. 

Strawberries,  diseases  and  insects,  360. 

distance  for,  177. 

fertilizers  for,  150. 

unjury  from  frosts,  309. 

on  low  lands,  52. 

picking,  366. 

sterile  and  fertile,  157. 

temperatures  injurious  to,  314. 
Strawberry,  species  of,  8. 

tree,  6. 

Stripping  trees,  175. 
Stuart,  on  pruning,  234. 

on  setting-board,  196. 
Subsoil,  as  soil  determinant,  15. 
Sugar-apple,  4. 
Sulfate,  low-grade,  for  apples,  143. 

of  potash,  for  apples,  137. 
Summer-fallow,  104. 
Sun-scald,  protection  from,  292. 
Surinam  cherry,  4. 
Sweet-sop,  4. 

Tamarind,  5. 
Tamarindus  indica,  5. 
Tangerine,  4. 

temperatures  injurious  to,  314. 
Tare,  as  cover-crop,  120. 
Tarr,  quoted,  46. 
Temperature,  dangers  of,  44. 

determinant,  11. 

injurious  to  fruits,  314. 
Tent-caterpillars,  57,  349. 
Terminalia  Catappa,  6. 
Tetrancyhus  bimaculatus,  357. 
Thinning  the  fruit,  241,  249. 
Thornber,  on  fillers,  180. 

on  use  of  corn  in  orchards,  104. 
Thrips,  358. 
Tight-jacket  trees,  275. 
Tillage,  64,  91. 

and  productiveness,  287, 

benefits  of,  76. 

philosophy  of,  75. 
Tilling  for  frost,  260. 
Tmetocera  ocellana,  346. 
Tobacco,  as  insecticide,  341. 
Tools  in  relation  to  moisture-saving,  84. 
Top-grafting  trees,  279. 
Top-working  stocks,  171. 
Tortrix,  351. 
Tree-cricket,  351. 
Tree  tortrix,  351. 
Triangular  system,  192. 
"Tribune  Farmer,"  quoted,  13. 
Trimming,  184. 
Triphasia  trifoliata,  4. 


Turnips,  as  cover-crop,  118,  123,  124. 

seed  to  the  acre,  124,  12K 
Tussock-moth,  350. 
Twig-moth,  357. 
Typhlocyba  comes,  355. 
Typophrus  canellus,  360. 

Vaccinium,  species  of,  7,  8. 

Valsa  leucostoma,  305. 

Van  Deman,  H.  E.,  on  planting,  198. 

Vapor  vs.  frost,  260. 

Varieties  and  productiveness,  287. 

choice  of,  153. 

scoring  of,  161. 

Vegetables  for  home  fruit-garden,  220. 
Venturia  inequalis,  344. 
Veratrum  album,  338. 
Vetch,  as  cover-crop,  120,  122,  124. 

seed  to  the  acre,  124,  125. 

weight  of  seeds,  126. 
Vicia  species,  as  cover-crop,  120. 
Vigna  sinensis,  as  cover-crop,  119. 
Vincent,  on  crossing  apples,  159. 
Vitis,  species  of,  6. 

Wagons  for  picking,  374. 

Waite,  quoted,  157. 

Walnut,  diseases  and  insects,  36i. 

English.temperatures  injurious  to,314 

species  of,  5. 

Warner,  on  cost-accounting,  27. 
Water  in  air,  260. 
Watering  young  trees,  274. 
Wax,  grafting,  281. 
Wealthy  apple,  table  of  points,  162. 
Weather  and  location,  41,  49. 
Weeds,  as  cover-crops,  123. 
Weevils,  352. 
Wellhouse  orchards,  201. 
Wellington,  on  orchard-heating,  271. 
Wheat,  as  cover-crop,  119,  123,  124. 

constituents  of,  133. 

seed  to  the  acre,  124. 
Wheeler,  on  fertilizers,  144,  146,  148, 

149,  150,  151,  152, 
Whetzel,  344. 

White,  Elizabeth  C.,  quoted,  260. 
Whitewashing  as  protection,  259. 

trees,  277. 

Whitten,  on  whitewashing,  259. 
Wickson,  on  windbreaks,  63. 
Wilder,  H.  J»,  on  soil-adaptations,  13. 
Wilson,  C.  S.,  on  irrigation  in  the  East, 
106. 

on  packing,  401. 

quantity    of    seed    for    cover-crops, 
124. 


432 


Index 


Wilson,  W.  M.,  on  frosts,  51,  252. 

Wilt,  353. 

Windbreaks,  55. 

Wind,  effects  of,  41. 

Wineberry,  7. 

Winter-killing  of  fruit-buds,  306. 

of  wood,  299. 
Winter  preparations,  282. 
Wire-compass,  method,  213. 
Wood-ashes,  effects  on  apples,  136. 
Woodberry,  on  orchard-heating,  271. 
Woolly  aphis,  350. 


Worms,  attacks  by,  322. 
Wounds,  dressing  of,  233. 

treatment  for,  296. 
Wrapping  fruit,  402. 

Xylina  species,  347. 

Yeomans,  staking  plan,  202. 
Ypsolophus  pometettus,  348. 

Zizyphus  Jujuba,  6. 
Zones,  11,  12. 


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